M 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

University  of  California. 


Class 


NEW  ELEMENTARY 
AGRICULTURE 


AN   ELEMENTARY   TEXT   BOOK    DEALING    WITH    THE 

PLANTS,  INSECTS,  BIRDS,  WEATHER,  AND 

ANIMALS  OF  THE  FARM 

BY 

^  CHARLES  E.  BESSEY 

Professor  of  Botany,  University  of  Nebraska 

LAWRENCE  BRUNER 

Professor  of  Entomology,  University  of  Nebraska 

GOODWIN  D.  SWEZEY 

Professor  of  Astronomy,  University  of  Nebraska 
ASSISTED  BY 

H.  R.  SMITH 

Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry,  University  of  Nebraska 

R.  W.  THATCHER 

Professor  of  Chemistry,  Washington  State  Agricultural  School 


Sixth  Edition 

LINCOLN,  NEBRASKA 
THE  UNIVERSITY  PUBLISHING  CO. 

1907 


'^        ^        OF  THE  \ 

it    UNlVERSrrY  ) 


OF 


3^ 


^ 


^ 


COPYRIGHT 

BY  THE   UNIVERSITY   PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

1903  AND  1904 


QTte  laittBilic  ^rtBS 

R    K    nONNKI.I.KY   .V  SONS  IDMPANY 
CHICAGO 


CONTENTS 

Page 
CHAPTER   I 

What  is  a  Plant  and  Wi^at  is  It  Doing?    ,        =        „  i 

CHAPTER   n 
How  THE  Farmer  can  Use  the  Plant  ,00.18 

CHAPTER   HI 
Different  Classes  of  Farm  Plants      ....        27 

CHAPTER   IV 
The  Important  Farm  Crops 39 

CHAPTER   V 
The  Insects  of  the  Farm  .        .        .        .     \       .        51 

CHAPTER   VI 
Useful  Insects       57 

CHAPTER  VII 
Harmful  Insects  ........       70 

CHAPTER   VIII 
Birds ,      100 

CHAPTER    IX 
Other  Wild  Animals ,        .      118 

CHAPTER   X 
The  Weather  of  the  Farm 121 

iii 


166719 


IV  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   XI  ^^^^ 

The  Wind 129 

CHAPTER  XII 
Cloudy  and  Rainy  Weather     .....       135 

CHAPTER  XIII 
Storms ,       .  •      139 

CHAPTER  XIV 
Weather  Predictions .142 

CHAPTER  XV 
The  Soil .146 

CHAPTER   XVI 
Domestic  Animals  of  the  Farm      .       .       .       ,       ,      156 

-CHAPTER  XVII 
Cattle       .  166 

CHAPTER   XVIII 
Swine  181 

CHAPTER   XIX 
Sheep ,187 

CHAPTER  XX 
How  to  Care  for  Live  Stock  ,..«..      191 


INTRODUCTORY 

This  is  an  agricultural  nation.  The  products  of  the 
soil  are  the  basis  of  her  industries  and  her  prosperity. 
The  children  of  our  great  Commonwealths  should  be 
familiar  with  our  crops,  our  grains  and  grasses,  our 
flowers  and  fruits,  our  trees  and  shrubs  and  weeds,  our 
domestic  animals  and  birds  and  insects.  Our  children 
should  have  a  practical  knowledge  of  the  management 
of  a  farm,  of  the  composition  of  the  soil,  and  of  the 
adaptability  of  the  farm  and  its  soil  for  the  cultivation 
of  certain  plants  and  the  counter  effect  of  such  plant 
growth  upon  the  soil.  They  should  love  nature,  they 
should  be  taught  nature's  ways  and  means,  taught  to 
observe  her  phenomena  closely  and  in  such  a  manner 
that  they  will  learn  to  love  her.  Nearly  all  industries 
of  mankind  have  their  origin  in  the  soil,  and.  children 
should  be  led  to  see  the  relation  between  farm  labor  and 
its  products  and  the  marts  of  trade  and  commerce. 

Much  of  the  work  of  the  school,  including  instruction 
in  geography,  arithmetic,  science,  and  literature  might 
be  correlated  profitably  with  instruction  in  agriculture 
and  nature  study.  A  school  garden  with  the  actual 
work  intelligently  directed  might  prove  an  inspiration 
to  honest  toil  and  better  living.  As  the  effect  of  teach- 
ing vocal  music  daily  in  the  schoolroom  is  felt  in  the 
church,  the  Sabbath  school,  in  society,  and  in  all  public 


VI  INTRODUCTORY 

gatherings,  so  the  teaching  of  agriculture  and  nature 
study  will  affect  and  improve  every  farm  and  garden 
and  lawn  and  flower-box  in  the  neighborhood.  The 
attractions  of  farm  life  may  be  thus  enhanced  and  the 
exodus  to  the  city  diminished. 

Instruction  in  agriculture,  properly  presented,  will 
increase  interest  in  school  life  and  in  farm  life.  The 
care  of  stock,  the  protection  of  insectivorous  birds,  the 
preservation  of  game,  the  engineering  of  the  farm,  the 
great  physical  universe,  •  will  appeal  directly  to  the 
boys,  and  the  domestic  science,  including  preservation 
of  fruit  and  dairying  and  rural  economy,  will  interest 
the  girls.  The  farm  is  the  groundwork,  the  backbone, 
the  sinew,  of  our  health,  our  wealth,  our  happiness.  It 
must  remain  so.  Keep  close  to  nature  for  physical, 
intellectual,  and  spiritual  strength  and  growth. 

The  school  laws  of  Nebraska  require  teachers  "to 
pass  a  satisfactory  examination  in  the  elements  of  agri- 
culture, including  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  structure  and 
habits  of  the  common  plants,  insects,  birds,  and  quad- 
rupeds," for  second-grade  county  certificates  and  all 
grades  above  the  second.  This  book  has  been  prepared 
and  published  in  answer  to  the  direct  demand  resultant 
from  the  law  quoted  above.  We  believe  that  the  art 
of  thinking,  of  reasoning,  and  of  higher  and  better  liv- 
ing can  have  no  higher  source  and  no  more  pronounced 
results  in  any  line  of  school  instruction  than  where 
children  are  taught  to  look  "through  nature  up  to 
nature's  God. " 

The  manuscript  has  been  prepared  by  Dr.  Charles  E. 
Bessey.    Professor  G.    D.   Swezey,   Professor   Lawrence 


INTRODUCTORY  Vll 

Bruner  and  Professor  H.  R.  Smith  of  the  University 
of  Nebraska,  and  Professor  R.  W.  Thatcher  of  the 
Washington  Agricultural  College.  Dr.  Bessey  and  Pro- 
fessor Swezey  prepared  the  copy  on  the  '  *  Plants  of  the 
Farm."  The  chapters  on  the  "Weather  of  the  Farm" 
were  prepared  by  Professor  Swezey.  Professor  Bruner 
prepared  the  chapters  on  the  "Insects  and  Birds  of  the 
Farm,"  Professor  Smith  the  chapters  on  the  "Domestic 
Animals,  of  the  Farm,"  and  Professor  Thatcher  the  chap- 
ter dealing  with  the  "Soils." 

The  illustrations  have  been  drawn  from  various 
sources,  credit  being  especially  due  several  government 
publications  and  the  work  of  C.  V.  Riley.  Credit  is 
also  due  to  Gray's  "How  Plants  Grow,"  and  to  Todd's 
Astronomy,  both  published  by  the  American  Book  Com- 
pany, for  cuts  which  have  been  reproduced. 

William  K.  Fowler, 
State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction. 
Lincoln,  Nebraska,  August  i,  1903. 

Department  of  Agriculture," 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Superintendent  W.  K.  Fowler,  Lincoln,  Nebraska: 

In  reply  to  your  letter  I  have  to  say  that  your  propo- 
sition to  have  a  book  written  along  the  lines  of  elemen- 
tary agriculture  for  the  use  of  the  public  schools  is 
well  timed.  It  will  meet  a  want  that  has  been  ver' 
pressing.  If  we  could  have  school-teachers  informed 
along  these  lines  it  would  be  a  great  pleasure  to  them 
and  a  great  benefit  to  their  pupils,  and  would  train  young 
people  in  the  direction  of  the  studies  that  will  control 


Vin  IXTKODUCTORV 

their  life  work.  There  should  be  a  universal  demand 
for  such  a  publication.  The  gentlemen  who  are  to 
write  it  are  well  known  to  the  educators  and  scientists 
of  the  country,  and  stand  high  in  their  respective 
specialties.  I  bespeak  a  very  cordial  reception  for  the 
publication  when  it  is  issued. 

Very  truly  yours, 

[Signed]  James  Wilson, 

Secretary. 


PREFACE  TO   THE    REVISED   EDITION 

The  demand  for  the  New  Elementary  Agriculture  has 
grown  so  fast  that  it  has  become  necessary  to  publish  a 
second  edition.  The  few  errors  in  the  first  edition  have 
been  corrected,  and  all  the  plates  have  been  carefully 
revised. 

A  number  of  teachers  and  superintendents  have  sug- 
gested that  exercises  and  questions  would  add  greatly 
to  the  value  of  the  book  as  a  text.  These  appear  in 
the  revised  edition.  They  are  intended  to  help  the 
student  and  also  the  teacher,  who  will  use  many  other 
exercises  and  questions  to  add  to  the  interest  and  value 
of  the  class  work. 

The  questions  and  exercises  are  the  work  of  Mr.  G. 
F.  Warren,  Fellow  in  Agriculture,  Cornell  University; 
Superintendent  W.  M,  Kern,  Columbus;  Superintend- 
ent J.  W.  Searson,  Wahoo;  Superintendent  C.  A.  Fulmer, 
Beatrice;  Miss  Anna  E.  Caldwell,  Lincoln;  and  Pro- 
fessor Godwin  D.  Swezey,  University  of  Nebraska. 


THE   PLANTS   OF  THE   FARM 


CHAPTER  I 

WHAT  IS  A  PLANT  AND  WHAT  IS  IT  DOING  ? 

The  farmer  is  the  man  upon  whom  we  must  mainly 
depend  to  feed  the  world.  We  cannot  take  food  from 
the  earth.  We  may  fish  a  little  of  it  out  of  the  sea; 
we  may  find  a  few  things  that  we  like  growing  wild ;  but 
the  grain,  the  fruit,  the  vegetables,  the  pork  and  beef — 
in  fact,  about  everything  we  care  to  eat — must  come  from 
the  farm.  The  farmer  then  must  know  how  to  raise 
the  plumpest  kernels  of  wheat,  the  tenderest  meat,  the 
finest  fruit  and  vegetables,  and  how  to  raise  the  most  of 
them,  if  he  would  do  his  part  in  furnishing  the  vast 
supply  of  food  which  the  world  needs;  and  he  will  do 
this  all  the  better  if  he  understands  something  of  that 
wonderful  process  by  which  the  minerals  of  the  soil, 
and  the  gases  of  the  air,  and  the  water  in  the  falling 
raindrop  are  brought  together  and  built  up  into  food 
for  man  and  beast. 

For  the  farmer  cannot  mix  together  the  minerals  and 
the  water  and  the  air  and  make  out  of  them  anything 
good  to  eat.  True,  there  are  a  few  things  that  we  eat 
which  come  from  the  mineral  world;  but  these,  like  salt 
for  example,  are  after  all  not  really  foods;  they  may 
season  our  food,  but  they  cannot  feed  us.     All  our  food, 


2  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

everything  that  can  really  nourish  us,  comes  from  plant 
life.  Even  the  beef  and  mutton  and  pork,  ves,  even  the 
fish  of  the  river,  have  to  feed  on  plants  in  order  to  fur- 
nish us  food.  • 

Plants  Alone  can  Manufacture  Food. — The  farmer 
then  must  first  of  all  make  friends  with  the  plant ;  for  the 
plant  must  be  his  chief  helper  in  feeding  the  world. 
He  must,  also,  as  we  shall  see,  make  friends  with  the 
sunshine  and  the  soil,  and  even  with  the  birds  and  the 
insects,  for  they,  too,  can  help  him  somewhat;  but  the 
plant  must  be  his  right-hand  man;  for  the  plant  can  do 
what  no  one  else  in  the  world  can  do,  not  even  man 
himself;  it  can  take  the  minerals  and  the  water  of  the 
soil,  and  the  gases  of  the  atmosphere,  and  build  them  up 
into  starch  and  sugar  and  other  things  that  go  to  make 
our  food.  The  chemists  have  tried  to  put  together 
these  materials  and  construct  food  products  out  of  them, 
but  they  have  not  yet  succeeded;  perhaps  they  will 
some  day,  but  at  present  the  only  known  way  in  which 
any  of  the  foods  of  man  or  beast  can  be  constructed,  is  to 
put  a  seed  into  the  ground  and  let  the  growing  plant,  with 
the  aid  of  the  sunshine,  build  and  store  up  for  us  in  its 
own  tissues  the  food  which  alone  can  nourish  our  bodies. 

What  the  Plant  is  Trying  to  Do. — Let  us  see,  then, 
how  the  plant  does  this  wonderful  thing  which  it  alone  can 
do.  Let  us  trace  its  life  history  from  the  time  it  is  a 
tiny  seed  until  it  is  a  full-grown  plant,  bearing  somewhere 
about  it,  in  the  kernel  perhaps,  or  in  its  root,  a  supply  of 
food  for  man  or  beast.  What  is  a  plant  anyway,  and 
what  is  it  trying  to  do?  For  a  plant  is  a  living  thing 
just  as  truly  as  a  man,  and  it  has  a  purpose  of  its  own 


WHAT  IS  A  PLANT  AND  WHAT  IS  IT  DOING? 


3 


to  accomplish  just  as  much  as  the  farmer  has ;  and  its 
purpose  is  not  so  very  different,  either,  from  that  of  an 
inteUigent  and  prudent  man.  It  has  two  main  objects 
in  hfe:  first,  to  make  a  Uving  for  itself;  and  second,  to 
provide  something  for  its  offspring  so  that  they  may 
get  a  fair  start  in  life  when  the  parent  plant  is  dead  and 
gone.  For  the  plant  is  a  living  thing;  it  must  eat  and 
drink  and  breathe ;  it  almost  seems  as  if  it  could  think 
and  plan  for  itself. 

How  the  Young  Plant  Gets  its  Start  in  Life.— And 
so  we  will  begin  with  the  seed,  and  see  what  the  parent 
plant  has  done  for  it  and  what  it  can  do 
for  itself.  The  seed  is  generally  a  tiny 
young  plant  with  a  supply  of  food  laid  up 
for  it  to  feed  upon  until  it  is  old  enough  to 
get  a  living  for  itself.  Take  a  kernel  of 
corn  and  pull  away  the  skin  which  covers 
the  hollow  on  one  side  of  the  kernel. 
Under  it  lies  the  young  plant,  or  germ,  con- 
sisting of  a  leaf  or  two,  not  thin  and  green 
as  they  will  be  when  they  have  grown  up 
into  the  sunlight,  but  thick 
and  plump  and  yellow. 
The  rest  of  the  kernel  is 
mostly  starch  and  gluten, 
which  make  very  good  food 
.  Fig.  I.  The  germ    for  the  youug  plant.   When 

m  a  kernel  of  com.  \      . 

the  seed  is  put  mto  the 
ground  the  germ  feeds  on  this  rich  store  of  food  which 
the  parent  plant  has  provided;  its  little  leaves  rapidly 
grow  upward  to  the  air  and  sunshine,  while  its  roots  as 


Fig.  2.  The 
corn  germinat- 
ing. 


NEW   ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


Fig. 3.  The 
bean  split  to 
show  plantlet. 


rapidly  push  downward  into  the  soil  in  search  of  food 
and  drink,  and  by  the  time  the  store  of  food  is  all  used 
up  the  little  plant  is  able  to  get  its  own  living. 
*  Examine  the  bean.  Here  the  seed — that  is,  the  germ — 
can  be  split  into  halves.  These  are  the  first  two 
leaves  of  the  young  bean-plant  joined  together  at  the 
base  by  a  very  short  stem.  Between  them 
you  will  find  another  tiny  leaf  or  two  which 
will  also  push  their  way  up  into  the  air 
when  the  bean  is  planted.  Now,  the  first 
pair  of  leaves,  that  is,  the  halves  of  the 
bean,  are  so  thick  and  white  because  they 
are  full  of  food  stored  in  them  by  the 
parent  plant  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  the  growing 
plant.  When  the  bean  is  planted,  these  two  plump 
leaves  will  come  up  out  of  the  ground  and  will  then 
gradually  yield  up  their  extra  store  of  food  for  the  larger 
growth  of  the  other  little  leaves  and  of  the  root  until, 
as  before,  the  plant  is 
strong  enough  to  get  its 
own  living  out  of  the 
soil  and  the  air.  In 
the  corn,  then,  the  seed 
consists  of  a  germ  with 
food  stored  around  it 
in  easy  reach,  while  in 
the  bean  the  whole  seed 
is  the  germ  with  the 
food  stored  in  it;  that 
is,  in   the  first   pair  of 

leaves.  F10.4.    The  bean  germinating. 


WHAT  IS  A  PLANT  AND  WHAT  IS  IT  DOING?  $ 

Now  the  Young  Plant  Must  Make  its  Own  Liv- 
ing.— After  a  little  the  young  plant  will  have  used  up  its 
store  of  nourishment  and  must  shift  for  itself.  Like  the 
young  man  starting  out  in  life,  it  must  take  up  seriously 
the  problem  of  making  a  living,  and  it  must  manage  to  get 
its  food  out  of  the  soil  and  the  air.  This  the  plant 
cannot  do  alone  any  more  than  man  can.  It  must  have 
the  help  of  the  sun.  While  it  was  living  on  the  rich  food 
which  the  parent  furnished  it,  the  young  plant  did  not 
need  the  help  of  the  sun.  It  could  grow  in  a  dark  cellar, 
as  the  sprout  of  the  potato  often  does.  But  building  up 
food  out  of  mineral  matter  and  water  and  the  gases  of 
the  atmosphere  is  not  so  easy  a  matter,  just  as  the 
young  man  sometimes  finds  that  it  is  not  so  easy  to 
make  a  living  after  the  money  which  his  father  gave  him 
to  start  with  is  all  spent. 

How  the  Sunshine  Helps. — The  only  force  that  can 
put  together  the  minerals  and  the  water  of  the  soil  and 
the  gases  of  the  air  so  as  to  form  starch  or  sugar  or  any 
similar  food  product  is  the  sunshine,  and  the  only 
workshop  in  which  this  can  be  done  is  the  green  part  of 
a  plant.  So  we  see  how  the  farmer  must  make  friends 
of  both  the  plant  and  the  sunlight  if  he  would  succeed 
in  his  task  of  raising  something  to  eat.  We  do  not  know 
yet  just  how  the  sunshine  manages  to  combine  the 
materials  which  it  has  to  use  so  as  to  form  starch  or 
sugar  or  other  foods,  but  we  do  know  that  starch  is 
composed  of  three  elements  which  are  plentifully  found 
in  the  earth  and  air.  These  elements  are  carbon,  oxygen, 
and  hydrogen.  Carbon  is  a  black,  solid  substance;  a 
lump  of  hard  coal  is  mostly  carbon;  there  is,  also,  plenty 


6  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

of  carbon  in  the  atmosphere,  existing  in  a  gaseous  form, 
combined  with  other  elements.  Oxygen  and  hydrogen 
are  also  gases,  and  water  is  nothing  but  these  two  gases 
combined  and  condensed  into  a  liquid.  But  no  one  can 
take  a  piece  of  coal  and  mix  it  with  water  and  make 
starch  out  of  it.  Nor  can  he  get  the  carbon  out  of  the 
air  and  combine  it  with  water  any  easier.  And  the 
plant  is  as  helpless  as  we  are  about  it  except  there  come 
to  its  aid  the  power  of  the  sunshine.  And  the  sunlight 
can  accomplish  no  more  than  the  rest  of  us  unless  it 
finds  the  necessary  materials  in  the  right  place;  it  can 
do  nothing  at  all  with  them  when  the  water  vapor  and 
the  carbon  gases  are  floating  about  in  the  atmosphere; 
it  can  do  nothing  with  them  if  it  finds  them  in  the 
ground;  it  is  only  when  the  plant  has  brought  them 
together  in  its  own  green  leaves  that  the  sunshine  can 
act  upon  them.  And  so  the  leaf  is  a  loose,  porous  tissue 
into  which  the  gases  find  their  way;  and  the  stem  of 
the  plant  is  a  sort  of  pump  to  bring  up  the  water  from 
the  soil  into  the  leaves.  Now,  when  the  sun  shines 
upon  a  leaf  with  the  water  and  the  gases  in  it,  the  stm 
can  do  its  work ;  it  can  build  up  these  materials  into  food 
for  plant  and  man. 

Why  are  the  leaves  put  so  high  up  that  the  plant  has 
to  pump  water  up  to  them?  Evidently  because  they 
must  be  up  in  the  sunshine  or  else  the  sun  could  not  do 
its  work.  Why  are  they  so  thin  and  fiat?  Because 
there  must  be  plenty  of  chance  for  the  gases  to  get  into 
them  and  for  the  sunshine  to  fall  upon  them.  Why  are 
there  so  many  of  them?  If  one  could  take  all  the 
leaves  of  a  great  tree  and  spread  them  out  on  the  ground, 


WHAT  IS  A  PLANT  AND  WHAT  IS  IT  DOING?  7 

they  would  probably  cover  several  acres,  but  on  the 
living  tree  they  are  all  bunched  together  so  that  the 
tree  does  not  take  up  very  much  room  while  yet  the 
atmosphere  and  the  daylight  can  get  to  the  leaves; 
the  same  is  true  of  a  field  of  wheat  or  corn.  Evidently 
this  is  a  wise  contrivance  to  enable  the  plant  and  the  sun- 
shine to  construct  a  great  deal  of  food  in  a  small  space. 
If  the  plant  generally  had  thick  leaves  and  only  a  few  of 
them,  as  some  plants  do,  or  if  the  leaves  were  spread  out 
in  one  great  sheet,  our  farms  would  hardly  be  big  enough 
to  raise  enough  to  eat.  And  why  do  most  plants  and 
trees  lose  their  leaves  in  autumn  and  get  new  ones  in 
the  spring?  Because  during  the  winter  it  is  too  cold 
for  the  plant  to  build  up  any  food,  and  so  it  has  no  use 
for  leaves.  In  the  tropics  most  plants  are  evergreen; 
that  is,  they  keep  their  leaves  all  the  year  around  because 
it  is  warm  enough  for  them  to  be  at  work  throughout  the 
whole  year. 

How  the  Plant  Stores  up  its  Food. —But  if  the  plant 
food  is  built  up  in  the  leaves  only,  how  does  it  get  to  the 
stem  or  other  parts  of  the  plant,  where  it  is  needed  for 
growth,  or  to  the  seed  or  root,  where  it  is  wanted  for 
storage?  It  must  first  be  turned  into  sugar  and  other 
substances  which  will  dissolve  in  the  sap  and  thus  be  able 
to  pass  into  other  parts  of  the  plant ;  and  so  this  quantity 
of  plant  food  which  the  sun  is  making  in  the  leaves  of 
the  growing  corn  is  first  converted  into  sugar,  and  other 
soluble  substances,  then  dissolved  into  sweet  sap  and 
carried  off  where  it  is  wanted.  The  stem  of  the 
growing  corn,  as  every  farmer's  boy  knows,  is  full 
of  sweet  sap.     In  fact,  most  plants  have  a  sweet  tooth. 


8  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

and  their  growing  tissues  are  mainly  fed  on  this  supply 
of  sugar. 

But  not  all  of  this  sugar  is  used  immediately  in  the 
growth  of  the  plant ;  some  of  it  will  be  stored  up  for  later 
use  in  the  root  or  in  the  seed  or  somewhere  else  in  its 
tissues,  and  it  is  just  here  that  the  plant  can  be  of  so 
much  use  to  the  farmer;  this  food  which  it  has  stored 
up  for  its  own  use  is  not  only  good  for  the  plant  to  feed 
upon,  but  for  the  food  of  man  and  beast  as  well.  In 
short,  the  plant,  and  the  plant  alone,  can  build  up  from 
the  lower  world  of  mineral  matter  the  food  which  can 
supply  its  own  needs ;  and  then  the  animals  and  man  can 
use  the  same  plant  food  to  sustain  their  own  higher  life. 

Now,  let  us  see  how  cleverly  the  plant  manages  this 
matter  of  storing  up  food.  Although  it  is  sugar  in  the 
sap  mainly  that  plants  feed  upon,  it  would  hardly  do  to 
store  up  food  in  the  form  of  sugar.  It  would  be  too 
easily  dissolved  and  wasted.  The  plant  has  no  dry  bin 
or  cellar  in  which  to  store  its  products.  That  is  where 
the  farmer  may  help  the  plant.  Yet  the  plant  in  a  wile 
state  cannot  help  itself;  it  cannot  build  a  dry  granary 
in  which  to  store  its  food.  So  having  first  manufactured 
a  lot  of  sugar  which  can  be  dissolved  and  carried  from_ 
the  leaves  to  the  proper  parts  of  the  plants,  it  now 
turns  the  sugar  back  into  starch  or  some  other  insoluble 
form  in  order  that  it  may  not  be  dissolved  and  wasted. 
For  starch  and  sugar,  although  they  seem  so  different, 
are  chemically  very  much  alike.  They  are  composed  of 
the  same  elements,  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen,  and 
the  plant  is  chemist  enough  to  change  the  sugar  into 
starch  or  the  starch  into  sugar  according  to  its  needs. 


WHAT  IS  A  PLANT  AND  WHAT  IS  IT  DOING?  9 

So  a  grain  of  wheat  is  mostly  a  mass  of  starch,  as  dry  and 
hard  and  compact  as  the  plant  knows  how  to  make  it. 
And  so  is  a  grain  of  oats,  only  the  latter  is  still  further 
protected  by  a  tough,  dry  hull  wrapped  around  it. 
Truly  the  parent  plant  has  made  the  best  provision  it 
could  for  this  little  package  of  starch.  Now,  if  the  farmer 
comes  along  and  stores  it  in  a  dry  granary,  so  much  the 
better.  But  the  wheat  plant  would  not  like  to  depend 
upon  that,  for  in  the  wild  state  the  grain  would  have  had  to 
lie  out  on  the  ground  in  the  winter  in  order  to  sprout  in  the 
spring;  and  it  can  do  this  if  necessary  without  much 
danger  of  harm.  But  plainly  it  would  not  have  been  a 
good  plan  to  leave  the  food  stored  in  the  condition  of 
sugar  instead  of  starch,  for  it  would  easily  be  wasted 
away  and  lost. 

What  the  Flowers  are  For. — The  plant  has  germi- 
nated and  grown  and  reached  maturity;  it  has  made  a 
living  for  itself,  and  has  even  laid  up  something  for  the 
future.  It  must  now  attend  to  the  other  duty  of  its 
life;  it  will  soon  grow  old  and  die,  so  it  must  bear 
seeds  in  order  that  its  race  may  not  perish  from  the 
earth;  and  this  is,  perhaps,  the  most  wonderful  part  of 
the  plant's  life  and  growth.  For  the  purpose  of  produ- 
cing seeds,  the  plant  must  go  through  the  flowering  pro- 
cess. Perhaps  we  think  of  flowers  as  something  made 
chiefly  to  be  beautiful  rather  than  useful;  but  in  plant 
life  as  in  human  life  it  is  more  important  to  be  useful 
than  to  be  beautiful,  and  so  the  flower  is  not  primarily 
made  to  look  handsome,  but  because  its  beauty,  as  we 
shall  see,  can  be  made  very  useful  in  the  development 
of  the  seeds  of  the  plant. 


10 


NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


What  then  do  we  mean  by  a  flower,  and  what  has  it 
to  do  in  the  production  of  seeds?  The  essential  parts 
of  a  flower  are  two:  the  pistil,  or  the  little  pod  in  which 
the  young  seeds  are  developed;  and  the  stamens,  or  little 
sacs  which  contain  the  pollen,  or  yellow  dust,  which 
must  fall  upon  the  immature  seeds  and  fertilize  them 
in  order  that  they  may  be  able  to  grow.     Thus  in  the 

apple-blossom  the 
pistil  is  the  young 
apple,  the  stamens 
are  the  cluster  of  little 
slender  stalks  within 
the  flower,  each  with 
a  sac  at  the  end  which 
when  ripe  will  shed 
a  shower  of  golden 
dust  if  you  crush  it. 
How  the  Bees  Help. — Besides  these  essential  parts  of 
the  flower  there  are  the  beautiful  pink  and  white  petals 
which  we  so  much  admire;  and  well  we  may,  for  what  is 
there  more  beautiful  or  fragrant  than  an  orchard  of  ap- 
ples or  cherries  or  plums  in  bloom?  And,  perhaps, 
we  have  thought  that  they  were  made  so  attractive 
chiefly  to  make  us  glad  with  their  beauty,  and  have 
forgotten  that  the  flowers  are  first  of  all  for  the  plant 
and  only  secondarily  for  us.  And  now  we  shall  see 
what  the  beauty  and  fragrance  are  for ;  the  pollen  might 
fall  upon  the  young  seeds  in  the  same  flower  and  ferti- 
lize them,  but  it  is  better  for  the  plant  if  they  are  car- 
ried to  some  other  flower  instead.  However,  the  tree  is 
rooted  in  the  ground  and  cannot  visit  some  neighbor 


Fig.  s.     Section  of  wild  apple-blossom. 


WHAT  IS  A  PLANT  AND  WHAT  IS  IT  DOING?        I  I 

tree  to  exchange  pollen  with  it.  So  here  again  we  have 
another  example  of  that  beautiful  system  of  co-opera- 
tion of  which  we  have  already  seen  so  much,  as  we 
have  learned  how  farmer  and  plant  and  soil  and  sun 


Fig.  6.     Bees  distributing  pollen. 

must  work  together  to  accomplish  what  neither  of 
them  could  do  alone.  What  new  help  can  the  farmer 
call  to  his  aid  to  carry  the  pollen  from  tree  to  tree  ?  It 
must  be  some  one  provided  with  wings  and  some  one 
willing  to  work.  Who  then  better  than  the  bee?  And 
so  the  bee,  coming  out  of  one  flower  with  her  head  pow- 


12 


NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


dered  with  the  yellow  pollen  and  flying  away  to  push  it 
into  another,  may  think  that  she  is  only  getting  honey 
for  her  own  use,  but  she  is  really  doing  a  very  important 
and  necessary  service  for  the  plant,  and  for  the  farmer 
and  the  world  as  well,  by  distributing  pollen  from 
plant  to  plant.  And  now  we  see  what  the  showy  pink 
and  white  blossoms  are  for,  standing  out  so  conspic- 
uously against  their  back- 
ground of  green  leaves.  They 
are  to  catch  the  eye  of  the 
bee  and  guide  her  to  her 
work.  And  we  see  why 
flowers  are  generally  fra- 
grant, for  the  bee  knows  very 
well  what  that  odor  means 
long  before  she  can  see  the 
flowers.  And  we  see  why  a 
little  honey  is  stored  in  each 
blossom.  If  it  were  not  for 
the  honey,  the  bees  would 
soon  quit  their  job ;  and  be- 
sides, it  is  only  fair  play  between  the  plant,  and  the 
insect,  that  as  the  plant  gets  its  pollen  carried  for  noth- 
ing it  should  at  least  board  the  helper  while  she  works. 
How  the  Wind  Distributes  the  Pollen. — But  some 
plants  do  not  depend  upon  the  insects  for  this  service, 
and  when  they  do  not,  there  is  no  use  for  showy  flowers, 
or  fragrance,  or  honey.  For  example  the  com  is  not 
ordinarily  thought  of  as  having  flowers ;  yet  it  does  pos- 
sess the  essential  parts  of  a  flower.  The  tassel  furnishes 
the  stamens  and  in  the  proper  season  they  shed  a  per- 


Staminate  flower  of  the 


WHAT  IS  A  PLANT  AND  WHAT  IS  IT  DOING? 


feet  shower  of 
pollen.  And  each 
young  kernel  of 
corn  is  a  pistil 
which  is  to  ripen 
into  a  single 
seed;  each  ker- 
nel has  a  long 
slender  tube,  the 
silk,  reaching 
out  to  get  the 
grains  of  pollen, 
one  silk  from 
each  kernel  of 
the  ear.  Now 
we  see  why 
the  stamens  are 
put  at  the  very 
top  of  the  plant 
instead  of  close 
to  the  ovary,  as 
they  are  in  the 
apple  -  blossom ; 
since  the  corn- 
blossoms  have 
neither  the 
showy    petals 

and  penetrating  fragrance  to  attract  the  bee,  nor  the 
honey  to  reward  her  services,  the  corn  plant  must  de- 
pend upon  some  other  helper  which  docs  not  care  for 
honey,  and  this  time  it  is  the  wind.     When  the  pollen 


Fig.  8.     Pistillate  flower  of  the  com. 


14  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

sacs  are  ripe,  and  just  at  the  same  time  the  silks 
have  pushed  out  their  ends  from  the  tip  of  the 
young  ear,  the  pollen  dust  may  be  found  for  a 
few  days  flying  thick  about  the  field.  The  tassels 
are  high  up  where  they  can  catch  the  breeze;  or, 
if  the  wind  does  not  blow,  the  pollen  can  at  least  fall 
upon  the  ears  of  the  same  plant.  So  the  pollen  reaches 
the  young  silks  and  usually  enough  of  it  to  fertilize 
almost  every  kernel  in  the  ear.  This  is  always  a  critical 
time  in  the  life  of  the  com  plant ;  sometimes  a  few  days 
of  hot,  dry  winds  just  at  this  season  will  wither  up  the 
moist  tips  of  the  silks  before  they  can  catch  the  pollen, 
and  in  that  case  the  kernels  of  corn  will  not  mature; 
and  although  the  stalk  and  leaves  of  the  com  may  be 
green  and  the  plant  may  look  quite  thrifty,  there  will 
be  no  good  ears  of  corn,  and  both  the  corn  plant  and 
the  farmer  will  feel  that  their  labor  has  come  to  naught. 
Giving  the  Young  Plant  a  Fair  Chance.-r-When  the 
young  seeds  have  been  fertilized  by  the  pollen,  and  the 
little  germ  has  been  produced,  there  are  just  two  duties 
which  remain  for  the  parent  plant  to  do  for  its  offspring ; 
then  its  life  work  will  be  done,  and  well  done.  It  must 
lay  up  the  store  of  nourishment  which  the  young  plant 
will  need  while  it  is  getting  roots  and  leaves  of  its  own, 
and  it  must,  if  possible,  provide  some  means  by  which 
its  numerous  offspring  may  scatter  themselves  about  a 
little  before  they  settle  down  and  root  themselves  to 
the  ground  where  they  mu^t  ever  after  remain  to  fight 
the  battle  of  life.  If  the  seeds  feil  near  together  they 
might  be  so  crowded  that  none  of  them  could  get  a  good 
chance  at  the  sunshine.     They  will  have  plenty  of  strange 


WHAT  IS  A  PLANT  AND  WHAT  IS  IT  DOING?        I  5 


Fig.  q.  Seed 
of  the  milk- 
weed. 


and  untriendly  plants  to  contend  with  any  way,  without 
having  to  struggle  with  their  own  brothers  for  a  chance 
to  live  ana  grow. 

How  the  Seeds  are  Scattered. — Let  us  notice  a  few  of 
the  many  devices  by  which  this  scattering  of  seeds  is 
accomplished.  Every  thoughtful  farmer  boy 
or  girl  can  call  to  mind  a  variety  of  such 
devices.  How  many  plants  can  you  think 
of,  or  find  growing,  in  which,  as  in  the  Cot- 
tonwood or  the  milkweed,  every  little  seed 
is  provided  with  a  tuft  of  hairs  so  that  it 
may  be  carried  by  the  wind?  How  cnany 
winged  seeds  do  you  know  where  wings 
serve  the  same  purpose  as  a  tuft  of  hairs? 
In  the  catalpa,  perhaps,  you  will 
hardly  know  whether  to  call  it  a 
wing  or  a  tuft  of  hairs ;  but  any  way,  it  serves 
the  same  purpose.  How  many  seeds  do  you 
know  that  are  provided  with  hooks  or  barbs  or 
rough  surfaces  so  that  they  may  cling  to  the 
clothes  of  man  or  to  the  fleece  of  animals,  and 
so  be  carried  free  of  charge  on  their  journey 
from  the  parent  plant  to 
their  new  homes?  Such 
cases  as  these  are  familiar 
to  every  one  who  has 
watched  attentively  the 
growth  of  plants.  Perhaps 
some  other  modes  of  travel, 
although  equally  familiar, 

Fig.   io.     Winged  seeds  of  ash,  elm,    ^„  x  t,  i_  j.i-  -lj. 

and  maple.  Hiay  not  have  been  thought 


i6 


NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


Fig.  II.  Seed 


Fig.  12.  Seed 
of  cocklebur. 


of  as  designed  for  this  purpose; 
there  are  the  tumbleweeds,  in 
which  the  plant  grows  stout  and 
bushy,  its  stiff  branches  making 
the  whole  plant  a  loose,  round 
ball,  which,  when  the  seeds  are 
ripe,  is  torn  loose  from  the 
ground  by  the  wind  and  goes 
of  burmarigoid  rolling  across  the  prairie  scatter- 
ing its  seeds  by  the  way. 
And  thus  in  a  great  variety  of  ways  nature  has  pro- 
vided for  the  distribution  of  seeds  so  that  they  may 
reach  favorable  locations  in  which  to  strike  root  and 
'-row  and  again  produce  their  kind.  Some  plants  even 
provide  their  seeds  with  the  means  of  burying  themselves 
in  the  ground.  Some  of  the  grasses,  for  example,  have 
a  seed  with  a  long  awn,  or  bristle,  attached.  Perhaps 
you  did  not  know  what  these  were  for,  except  that  they 
make  good  darts  to  throw  at  your  playmates.  But 
these  long,  stiff  bristles  twist  up  when  dry  and  straight- 
en out  when  wet;  so  when  they  fall  in  the  tangled 
grass  every  successive  drying  and  moistening  pushes 
the  sharp  pointed  seed  into  the  ground  imtil  it  has 
planted  itself. 

Surely  these  are  wonderful  contrivances  in  which  the 
plant  first  looks  out  for  its  own  life  and  then  provides 
for  its  offspring.  What  more  could  any  little  plant 
ask  than  that  it  be  sent  out  into  the  world  on  the  wings 
of  the  wind,  dropped  where  it  will  have  room  to  grow, 
sometimes  even  pushed  down  into  the  warm  earth,  pro- 
vided at  the  outset  with  food  enough  to  last  until  it 


WHAT  IS  A  PLANT  ANDj  WHAT  IS  IT  DOING?        1/ 

can  make  its  own  living,  the  food  well  selected  and  well 
preserved  and  commonly  packed  in  a  nearly  waterproof 
case.  Even  the  tastes  of  the  young  plant  are  not  for- 
gotten. We  have  seen  that  although  plants  like  best  of 
all  the  sweet  sugar  of  the  sap  for  their  food,  it  was 
rather  necessary  that  the  parent  plant  should  convert 
it  from  sugar  into  starch  for  safe  storage.  But  we  are 
not  quite  at  the  end  of  this  wonderful,  true  story;  the 
little  plant  is  to  have  its  sugar  after  all ;  in  fact ,  it  could 
not  possibly  eat  the  starch.  When  the  grain  is  softened 
by  the  warm  moist  soil  in  the  spring,  the  first  thing  that 
will  happen  will  be  that  the  starch  is  again  turned  back 
into  sugar;  again  it  will  be  dissolved4nto  sap,  and  in  this 
condition  will  be  carried  up  to  feed  the  tissues  of  the 
growing  plant.  It  certainly  does  almost  seem  as  if  the 
plant  was  not  only  a  living  thing,  but  that  it  could  even 
think  and  plan.  Any  way,  if  it  cannot,  the  wise  Creator 
must  have  done  a  great  deal  of  thinking  for  it. 


1.  What  are  the  main  objects  in  a  plant's  life? 

2.  How  does  the  parent  plant  give  the  young  plant  a  "start 
in  life"? 

3.  What  things  are  necessary  in  order  that  a  plant  be  able  to 
prepare  food? 

4.  How  does  plant  food  get  from  one  part  of  the  plant  to  an- 
other?    Why  is  it  stored  as  starch  rather  than  as  sugar? 

5.  Bring  in  seeds  that  illustrate  the  dififerent  devices  for  seed 
distribution.     Why  is  it  necessary  that  seeds  be  scattered? 

See  page  195  for  exercises  and  page  198  for  free  references, 
which  your  school  should  not  fail  to  secure.  These  exercises 
are  to  be  taken  up  in  connection  with  pages  i  to  50  of  the  text, 
as  the  class  is  prepared  for  them. 


CHAPTER  II 
HOW  THE  FARMER  CAN  USE  THE  PLANT 

Now  that  we  have  learned  what  the  plant  is  trying  to 
accomplish  in  the  world  for  itself  and  its  offspring,  we 
can  better  understand  how  the  farmer  may  use  the  plant 
to  further  his  own  ends — the  feeding  of  himself,  his  do- 
mestic animals,  and  the  world. 

In  the  first  place,  he  will  choose  carefully  among  the 
many  plants  which  he  might  use,  those  which  will  best 
serve  his  purpose;  then  he  will  try  to  improve  these 
plants  so  that  they  will  be  still  more  useful ;  and  finally, 
he  will  assist  the  plant  in  every  way  he  can,  by  giving 
it  a  suitable  soil  in  which  to  grow,  by  enriching  the  soil 
itself  with  such  fertilizers  as  the  plant  will  like  best  and 
thrive  most  upon;  he  will  take  the  side  of  the  plant  in 
its  struggle  with  insect  enemies  and  with  other  plants 
which  would,  if  they  could,  crowd  it  out  of  the  field 
or  choke  its  healthy  growth ;  he  will  keep  the  soil  in  good 
condition  about  it  so  that  its  roots  may  get  as  much 
moisture  as  they  need;  he  will  even  turn  physician 
if  necessary,  and  by  spraying  the  plant  with  various 
mixtures,  will  help  it  to  combat  some  of  the  diseases 
to  which  it  may  be  subject.  In  short,  he  will  help  the 
plant  to  make  the  most  of  itself  in  every  way  he  can. 
All  this  calls  for  a  great  deal  of  thought  and  care  on  the 
part  of  the  farmer,  and  for  a  good  knowledge  of  the  plant 
and  its  needs. 

i8 


HOW  THE  FARMER  CAN  USE  THE  PLANT  IQ 

What  Crops  to  Grow. —  Plants  are  as  different  from 
each  other  as  people  are;  probably  more  so;  in  fact,  they 
may  almost  be  said  to  have  dispositions  of  their  own. 
Some  plants  seem  bent  mainly  upon  making  a  living 
for  themselves;  others  seem  to  be  more  concerned  in 
giving  their  offspring  a  start  in  life.  The  former  grow- 
plenty  of  stem  and  leaves  of  their  own,  but  they  pro- 
duce very  small  seeds.  In  such  cases,  however,  the}^ 
often  produce  a  prodigious  number  of  them.  They  seem 
to  go  on  the  plan  of  living  well  themselves  and  pro- 
ducing enough  seeds  so  that  even  if  the  most  of  them 
do  die,  yet  probably  somehow  there  will  be  enough  of 
them  that  will  manage  to  live  that  the  family  name 
will  not  be  cut  off  from  the  earth.  Naturally  such 
plants  would  not  be  the  kind  the  farmer  would  choose; 
their  little  seeds  would  be  too  poorly  provided  with  food 
to  serve  his  purpose.  Other  plants  produce  but  modest 
stalks  of  their  own,  just  enough  to  support  the  seeds 
and  to  supply  them  with  abundant  nourishment  and 
give  them  a  good  start  in  life ;  such  plants  often  produce 
but  few  seeds,  so  that  every  one  of  them  may  be  well 
provided  for.  One  of  the  noblest  is  the  Indian  corn; 
commonly  a  stalk  will  not  undertake  to  bear  more  than 
one  or  two  ears,  just  what  it  can  well  mature,  but  what 
great  magnificent  seeds  the  kernels  are,  in  which  each 
little  seed,  as  we  have  seen,  is  embedded  in  a  rich  mass 
of  food;  a  royal  crop  indeed  is  the  corn.  So  is  the  wheat 
and  the  rye,  and  so  would  the  oats  and  barley  be  were  it 
not  that  they  are  so  anxious  for  the  safety  of  their  seeds 
that  they  take  the  extra  precaution  of  wrapping  them 
in  a  hard,  indigestible  shell.     The  horses  and  cattle  do 


20  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

not  mind  this,  but  it  is  rather  too  much  trouble  to  get 
these  hulls  off  for  us  to  make  much  use  of  them  for 
human  food. 

Equally  rich  in  provision  for  their  offspring  are  most 
of  the  vegetables  from  the  garden.  First  among  these 
is  the  potato,  with  its  huge  tubers  of  starch  for  the 
young  plants  to  feed  upon  when  the  tubers  are  planted 
in  the  spring.  Naturally  such  plants,  as  these  have 
been  chosen  by  the  farmer  as  his  allies  and  helpers  in 
the  business  of  food-production. 

Varieties  can  be  Improved. — In  the  second  place,  it 
has  been  possible  to  greatly  improve  the  farm  crops  in 
just  the  way  that  they  are  already  so  good.  Let  us 
remember  that  the  part  of  the  plant  in  which  the  farmer 
is  chiefly  interested  is  not  generally  the  stem  or  the  leaf. 
All  he  cares  about  these  parts  is  that  they  be  vigorous 
enough  to  enable  the  plant  to  grow  a  large  rich  kernel 
or  fruit,  or  some  other  part  in  which  food  products  are 
stored.  Having  found  some  plant  which  tended  in  the 
first  place  to  grow  large  kernels  or  luscious  fruit,  men 
have  been  trying  ever  since  these  plants  were  discovered 
in  their  wild  state  to  make  them  grow  still  fatter  kernels, 
or  larger,  sweeter  fruits.  This  can  be  done,  partly  by 
fertilizing  the  soil  and  by  proper  cultivation,  but  more 
yet  by  selecting  for  seed  the  most  promising  varieties, 
so  that  we  may  get  better  and  better  kinds  of  grains  and 
vegetables  and  fruits. 

How  the  Farmer  can  Help  the  Plant.— Now,  when  the 
farmer  has  found  a  noble  species  of  plant  to  grow 
in  his  fields,  and  has  gotten  a  choice  variety  of  it,  it  is  his 
business  to  give  the  plant  every  assistance  in  his  power 


HOW  THE  FARMER  CAN  USE  THE  PLANT     2  1 

in  making  the  most  of  itself.  He  must  plow  the  ground 
deep  so  that  its  roots  may  find  a  loose  soil  in  which  they 
can  easily  push  their  way  down  where  moisture  is 
plenty;  he  must  plant  the  seeds  at  the  right  time  and 
at  the  right  depth;  he  must  know  how  thickly  to  seed 
the  ground  so  that  the  plants  may  fully  occupy  the 
soil  and  use  all  the  moisture  that  it  can  furnish,  and  yet 
not  so  thickly  that  they  will  crowd  each  other  for  room ; 
he  must  kill  the  weeds  that  start,  especially  at  the  very 
outset  of  the  season,  when  the  crop  is  young  and  feeble. 
If  his  plants  have  gotten  a  good  start  the  weeds  ;will  not 
matter  so  much.  It  would  be  only  a  waste  of  time  to 
kill  the  weeds  in  the  cornfield  after  the  corn  has  reached 
a  good  height.  It  will  then  be  able  to  take  care  of  itself 
and  a  few  weeds  struggling  for  a  living  in  the  shade  of 
the  cornstalks  will  not  am.ount  to  much,  and  will  event- 
ually be  plowed  under  to  enrich  the  soil  for  another  year. 
Breaking  the  Crust  to  Keep  in  the  Moisture. — But 
the  farmer  must  cultivate  the  soil  for  another  reason 
than  merely  to  kill  weeds,  and  that  is  to  keep  the  mois- 
ture in  the  ground  as  much  as  possible  for  the  use  of 
the  crop.  When  it  rains  on  a  cultivated  field,  a  little 
crust  forms  as  the  ground  dries  off  and  this  porous 
crust  acts  much  as  a  wick  does  in  a  lamp;  it  sucks  the 
moisture  up  from  the  ground  and  lets  the  sun  and  the 
wind  dry  it  out  and  carry  it  off  and  waste  it ;  if  now  this 
surface  crust  is  broken  up  by  the  harrow  or  cultivator, 
even  if  there  is  not  a  weed  to  be  seen,  it  is  a  great  help 
to  the  growing  plant;  for  the  moisture  in  the  soil,  find- 
ing a  thin  layer  of  loose,  dry  dirt  on  top,  cannot  escape 
up  through  it  to  the  air  above,  and  so  it  remains  in  the 


22  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

soil  down  where  the  roots  of  the  plant  can  find  and  use 
it.  This  surface  cultivation  after  each  rain  for  the  pur- 
pose of  breaking  up  the  crust  and  leaving  it  like  a  loose 
mulch  that  keeps  the  moisture  down  is  especially  impor- 
tant in  a  region  like  Nebraska,  where  the  sun  and  the 
wind  have  such  a  drying  effect. 

What  is  a  Weed? — Of  course  one  of  the  best  ways 
in  which  the  farmer  can  assist  the  plant  is  by  keeping 
down  the  weeds  which  might  get  the  better  of  it.  The 
weed,  like  any  other  plant,  has  its  own  ends  to  gain. 
It,  too, ^ is  trying  to  make  a  living  and  to  provide  for  its 
offspring.  Commonly  the  strong  point  with  a  weed  is 
the  getting  of  its  own  living,  rather  than  the  making 
of  any  very  generous  provision  for  its  offspring.  In  fact, 
by  a  weed  we  generally  mean,  not  a  vicious  sort  of  a 
plant,  that  stings  us  or  poisons  us,  not  always  an  ugly 
plant,  for  some  of  the  weeds  have  very  beautiful  flowers; 
a  weed  is  any  particularly  vigorous  plant  which  is  abtui- 
dantly  able  to  look  out  for  itself,  but  generally  lays  up 
such  little  provision  for  its  offspring  that  it  would  not  be 
of  much  use  for  the  farmer  to  encourage  it  for  any  food 
products  which  he  could  get  out  of  it.  So  he  prefers  to 
take  sides  with  the  corn  and  the  wheat  and  the  potato, 
rather  than  with  the  purslane  or  the  pigweed,  or  even 
with  the  wild  morning-glory  with  its  beautiful  blossoms. 

Habits  of  Different  Weeds. — And  yet  the  weed,  be- 
cause it  is  so  well  able  to  take  care  of  itself,  is  not  a 
plant  for  the  farmer  to  make  light  of.  Commonly  it  is 
a  foeman  worthy  of  his  steel.  Let  us  take  a  few  familiar 
examples  and  see  how  it  is  that  weeds  are  such  vigorous 
contestants  in  the  struggle  for  existence  with  the  farmer 


HOW  THE  FARMER  CAN  USE  THE  PLANT 


23 


and  his  crops;  and  we  shall  discover,  too,  a  great  variety 
of  devices  which  different  weeds  have  for  getting  the 
better  of  their  rivals  in  the  field. 

Some  of  them,  like  the  quick-grass  and  the  wild  morn- 
ing-glory, or  bindweed,  are  almost  impossible  to  kill 
out  by  any  ordinary  process  of  weeding;  not  because 
they  are  so  numerous,  for  they  produce  but  few  seeds, 
so  that  we  do  not  have  a  whole  carpet  of  young  plants 
covering  every  furrow  and  ridge  after  a  rain,  as  we  do  of 
some  kinds  of  weeds ;  but  because  when  one  of  these  morn- 
ing-glory seeds  gets  a  start,  it  rapidly  spreads  in  all  direc- 
tions, covering  the  ground  with  its  tangled  mass  of  cling- 
ing vines ;  and  it  is  able  to  do  this  mainly  because  it  has 
a  peculiar  kind  of  underground  branches  which  hide 
away  out  of  your  sight :  slender  white  branches  which  bur- 
row in  the  ground  where  you  cannot  well  get  at  them ; 
branches  without  green  leaves  and  which,  therefore,  could 
not  make  a  living  for  themselves  and  would 
quickly  perish  were  they  not  fed  by  the 
living  plant  above.  These  underground 
branches  spread  in  all  directions,  striking 
root  here  and  there  and  sending  up  numer- 
ous other  branches  to  add  to  the  tangle  of 
vines  above  ground.  It  does  not  do  much 
good  to  clip  off  the  plant  with  a  hoe  nor 
even  to  pull  it  up,  for  you  cannot  pull  up 


Underground  stem  of  quick-grass. 


24  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

with  it  its  numerous  underground  branches;  these 
remain  unharmed  and  will  quickly  send  up  new  vines 
to  replace  the  old.  It  is  of  no  use  even  to  tear  to  pieces 
the  underground  plant  with  a  cultivator,  for  unless 
you  can  actually  get  it  out,  root  and  branch,  you  have 
only  broken  up  a  single  plant  into  a  number  of  separate 
plants,  each  capable  of  living  and  sending  up  new 
leafy  vines. 

Another  vigorous  grower,  and  one  of  the  most 
troublesome  of  weeds,  is  the  purslane  plant,  so  that  to 
be  "as  mean  as  pusley"  has  become  a  byword.  Did 
you  ever  stop  to  consider  the  points  in  its  make-up 
which  give  the  purslane  its  staying  qualities?  You 
will  find  that  it  lives  and  thrives  in  a  very  different 
way  from  that  in  which  the  bindweed  does.  The  pur- 
slane is  a  hot- weather  plant,  and  does  not  get  in  its  work 
until  the  season  is  well  advanced,  and  it  does  not  need  to. 
It  has  a  thick  juicy  stem  covered  with  a  tough  skin,  so 
that  while  other  plants  wilt  and  wither  under  a  scorching 
sun,  the  ptirslane  does  not  even  feel  thirsty.  Again,  it 
has  a  habit  of  bushy,  spreading  growth  which  well 
shades  the  ground  and  keeps  the  moisture  in  it;  it  is 
always  damp  under  a  big  purslane  plant,  no  matter  how 
dry  the  field  may  be  elsewhere.  If  you  hoe  it  off  at  the 
surface  of  the  ground  and  do  not  take  the  precaution 
to  turn  it  bottom  side  up,  it  is  very  likely  that  its  pulpy 
stem  will  live  long  enough  without  drying  up  to 
strike  root  again,  especially  if  there  should  be  a 
shower  of  rain  to  moisten  the  ground,  so  that  it  goes  on 
growing  very  much  as  if  nothing  had  happened.  Really 
about  the  only  way  to  be  sure  you  have  killed  it  is  to 


HOW  THE  FARMER  CAN  USE  THE  PLANT  25 

feed  it  to  the  pigs ;  and  even  then  if  your  hoe  has  happened 
to  cut  it  off  a  little  above  the  ground,  you  are  pretty 
sure  to  leave  a  bud  or  two  on  the  stump,  which,  with  a 
good  root  to  nourish  them,  will  quickly  reproduce  a 
new  crop  which  rises  to  greet  you  serenely  at  the  next 
hoeing  time.  Finally,  it  is  a  plant  which  produces  a 
prodigious  number  of  seeds.  Finding  a  thrifty  purslane 
plant  almost  as  large  as  a  bushel  basket,  the  author  onc^ 
made  a  rough  estimate  of  the  number  of  little  seeds  it 
bore.  Taking  as  nearly  as  he  could  tell  one-tenth  of  the 
whole  plant,  he  counted  the  number  of  seed  pods  on  it, 
then   broke   open  a  number  of   them  and  ^^ 

counted  their  seeds,  so  as  to  get  some  idea  ^^1 

of   the  average  number  in  each  pod.     It         ^^^ 
was  found  thus  from  calculation  that  the         Y^f 
whole   plant  must  have  borne  somethinsr  ^^ 

i-1  1  /TA         •       /•  ir       ^^^-  ^4-  Many- 

like  100,000  seeds.       Try   it   for    yourself     seeded  pod  of 

purslane. 

some  time  and  see  what  results  you  get. 
If  this  number  of  seeds  were  planted  a  foot  apart,  so 
as  to  cover  the  ground  with  a  new  crop  of  purslane,  that 
one  plant  would  have  seeded  more  than  an  acre.  Do 
you  wonder  that  the  m^ore  modest  plants  of  the  garden 
need  the  aid  of  man  in  their  struggle  for  existence  with 
such  an  aggressive  rival? 

Plant  Diseases. — Plants,  as  well  as  animals  and  man, 
are  subject  to  certain  diseases,  which  the  farmer  ought 
to  understand  since,  in  many  cases,  it  is  possible  for  him 
to  doctor  his  crop  of  plants  and  vegetables  with  certain 
spraying  mixtures  or  in  other  ways  to  help  them  to  get 
well.  Most  of  such  plant  diseases  are  due  to  the  growth 
of  a  minute  fungus  in  some  part  of  the  plant  itself; 


26  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

sometimes  in  the  leaves,  sometimes  m  the  stem,  or  it 
may  be  even  in  the  fruit  or  the  grain.  This  fungus  is 
itself  a  little  microscopic  plant,  whose  tiny  seeds  or 
spores  are  easily  blown  about  in  the  wind.  If  they 
fall  upon  a  suitable  plant  and  upon  the  right  part  of  the 
plant,  they  will  germinate  and  grow,  pushing  their 
minute  branches  into  the  plant  itself  and  feeding  upon 
it;  perhaps  even  killing  it,  or  at  least  producing  diseased 
places  in  it. 

Thus  the  smut  of  corn  and  other  grains,  which  swells 
and  distorts  the  kernels  and  turns  them  into  a  mass  of 
black  powder,  the  mildew,  which  forms  whitish  patches 
on  the  leaves  of  many  plants,  and  the  rust,  which  produces 
reddish  spots  on  leaves  and  stems,  are  all  species  of  fungi, 
and  they  sometimes  do  considerable  damage.  Spray- 
ing with  various  poisonous  liquids  will  kill  many  of  these 
fungi  ^nd  often  it  will  be  worth  while  for  the  farmer  or 
gardener  to  do  this.  Scab  on  potatoes  and  apples, 
blight  which  shrivels  up  the  twigs  of  fruit-trees,  and 
even  rot,  which  affects  potatoes  and  fruits, — these  and 
many  other  diseases  are  caused  by  different  species  of 
fungi,  and  many  of  them  can  be  prevented  or  destroyed 
by  understanding  their  various  habits  and  peculiarities 
and  knowing  what  remedy  to  apply. 


1.  How  can  we  improve  the  varieties  of  plants? 

2.  Why  do  we  cultivate  the  soil?  Does  cultivation  do  any 
good  when  there  are  no  weeds?     How? 

3.  Make  a  list  of  the  ten  worst  weeds  of  the  neighborhood. 
What  is  the  character  that  makes  each  one  a  bad  weed ;  that  is, 
able  to  live  in  spite  of  man  ?  Tell  how  each  one  can  be  most 
easily  kept  down. 


^     OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


CHAPTER  III 

DIFFERENT  CLASSES  OF  FARM  PLANTS 

We  have  now  learned  what  a  plant  is  and  what  it  is 
trying  to  do  for  itself  and  also  how  the  farmer  can  use 
it  and  co-operate  with  it  so  as  to  serve  his  own  ends  as 
well  as  those  of  the  plant  itself.  We  have  found  that 
different  plants  possess  very  different  traits  and  pecu- 
liarities, and  have  very  different  and  peculiar  ways  of 
making  a  living.  Let  us  now  see  how  the  different 
habits  of  plants  may  be  made  to  furnish  the  farmer 
not  only  food,  which  is  the  matter  of  first  importance, 
but  also  fuel  and  shelter  and  shade  and  ornament  and 
many  other  things  to  make  his  life  more  comfortable 
and  happy.  Almost  every  class  of  plants  has  some 
peculiarity  of  growth  on  which  it  relies  mainly  to  make 
its  way  in  the  world.  The  farmer  must  know  these 
peculiarities  and  take  advantage  of  them  and  use  them 
to  his  own  betterment. 

The  Cereal  Grains. — For  example,  we  have  already 
seen  that  the  various  grains,  such  as  wheat,  oats,  and 
corn,  owe  their  importance  as  farm  crops  to  their  habit 
of  storing  a  large  supply  of  excellent  food  in  the  seed 
itself;  this  is  their  strong  point;  the  young  plant,  because 
it  has  been  so  well  provided  for  by  its  parents,  is  able 
to  sprout  quickly  and  to  make  rapid  growth  at  the  out- 
set, so  that  it  is  apt  to  get  a  good  start  in  the  race 
for  life  as  compared  with  seeds  which  have  been  only 

27 


28  NEW  ELEMENTARY  A,GRICULTURE 

meagerly  supplied  by  their  parents  with  nourishment. 
The  crop  of  wheat  or  oats  so  quickly  covers  and  shades 
the  ground  that  the  weeds  get  but  little  chance,  hence 
we  do  not  need  even  to  cultivate  the  ground  after  the 
seed  is  planted.  It  is  this  large  size  of  the  seed,  together 
with  the  excellence  of  the  food  stored  in  the  cereal 
grains,  that  makes  them  on  the  whole  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  farmer's  crops. 

Vegetables. — Most  vegetables  are  useful  to  the  farmer 
because  of  a  very  different  habit  of  the  parent  plant, 
namely,  that  of  storing  up  food  in  their  own  tissues  and 
mainly  for  their  own  use  rather  than  for  their  offspring. 
Thus  the  radish  plant  for  a  considerable  time  seems  not 
to  be  growing  much;  it  does  not  form  many  new  leaves 
nor  push  up  a  stalk  nor  send  out  branches.  One  might 
be  tempted  to  think  that  it  had  no  serious  purpose  in 
life  either  in  the  way  of  doing  anything  for  itself  or  of 
developing  seeds  and  providing  for  its  offspring;  but  we 
must  be  content  to  let  every  plant  manage  its  own  busi- 
ness in  its  own  way  for  that  way  is  always  best.  And 
the  way  the  radish  manages  is  this :  it  spends  its  young 
and  more  vigorous  days  during  the  spring  and  early 
summer  in  accumulating  all  that  it  can  and  storing  it 
in  the  root  so  that  when  it  gets  ready  later  in  the  season 
to  attend  to  the  matter  of  developing  flowers  and  seeds, 
it  may  have  a  good  supply  of  food  to  draw  upon  for  this 
rather  exhausting  process ;  and  so  when  the  proper  time 
comes  it  pushes  up  its  stem  and  puts  out  its  branches 
and  its  flowers,  and  finally  its  seeds,  at  an  astonishing 
rate  of  speed.  Most  root  crops,  as  the  turnip,  parsnip, 
and  carrot,  do  the  same  thing,  except  that  they  usually 


DIFFERENT  CLASSES  OF  FARM  PLANTS  29 

take  two  years  instead  of  one  to  do  it  in.  They  spend 
one  year  in  storing  up  food  and  the  other  in  developing 
flowers  and  seeds.  Other  vegetables  use  a  different 
part  of  the  plant  for  a  storehouse.  The  lettuce  stores  its 
supply  in  a  thick  tuft  of  leaves ;  the  cabbage  in  the  still 
more  compact  bunch  of  leaves  which  we  call  the  head; 


Fig.  1 5.     Section  of  cabbage. 

the  onion  in  a  similar  bunch  of  leaves,  developed  under 
ground,  forming  the  bulb. 

In  all  such  cases  the  farmer  can  take  advantage  of 
this  habit  which  the  plant  has  of  laying  up  for  its  own 
use ;  if  he  does  not  care  to  gather  a  crop  of  seeds  from 
his  parsnips  or  carrots  or  cabbages,  he  can  let  the  plant 
do  the  first  half  of  its  work  and  then  pull  it  up  and 
so  stock  his  cellar  with  choice  vegetables  for  the  table. 

The  potato,  perhaps  our  most  important  vegetable,  is 
useful  for  a  similar  reason,  only  in  this  case  it  does  not 
store  food  in  the  tuber  for  its  own  old  age,  but  for  its 
offspring.     The  potato,  being  in  its  wild  state  a  native 


30 


NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


of  warmer  regions  where  the  ground  does  not  freeze 
much,  has  adopted  a  rather  peculiar  way  of  propagating 
itself  from  year  to  year.  Although  it  produces  flowers 
and  seeds  the  same  as  most  plants  do  (the  seeds  are 


Fig,  i6.     Potato  plant  forming  its  tubers. 


found  in  little  balls  which  grow  at  the  top  of  the  plant), 
it  does  not  depend*  much  upon  these  seeds  for  repro- 
ducing itself;  it  develops  peculiar  tuidergroimd  branches, 
whose  tips  thicken  and  form  the  tubers,  and  it  is  the 
buds,  or  eyes  as  they  are  called,  in  these  tubers  from 
which  the  new  crop  will  grow.     So,  wisely,  the  parent 


DIFFERENT  CLASSES  OF  FARM  PLANTS  3  I 

plant  stores  plenty  of  food  in  these  tubers  for  the  young 
potatoes  to  live  upon  until  they  can  push  up  above 
ground  and  develop  leaves  and  branches  of  their  own. 
So  when  the  parent  plant  dies  down  in  the  autumn, 
these  underground  branches,  or  tubers,  live  to  reproduce 
the  plant  another  year.  In  our  part  of  the  world,  of 
course,  the  ground  freezes  too  severely  during  the  winter 
for  the  safety  of  these  tubers,  so,  as  the  farmer  has  brought 
the  potato  from  its  warmer  native  regions  to  our  less 
hospitable  climate,  of  course  he  must  not  neglect  to 
take  up  these  tubers  before  the  ground  freezes,  store 
them  safely  in  a  cellar  over  winter,  and  then  put  them 
back  in  the  ground  again  in  the  spring  if  he  wants  to 
grow  a  new  crop  of  potatoes.  Or  if  he  does  not  need 
them  for  seed,  he  may  fill  his  bins  with  them  for  sale  or 
for  eating. 

Forage  Plants. — Not  only  must  the  farmer  provide 
for  his  own  eating,  but  for  that  of  his  domestic  animals 
as  well;  and  he  must  provide  suitable  food  for  them,  too. 
The  cat  and  the  dog  and  the  chickens  may  get  along 
very  well  on  the  same  kind  of  food  as  the  farmer  does; 
the  pig  will  not  be  in  the  least  particular  about  his 
food;  almost  anything  is  good  enough  to  suit  him;  but 
the  horse  and  the  cow  and  the  sheep  would  not  thank 
you  for  the  finest  of  meat  or  the  freshest  of  eggs,  and 
even  a  loaf  of  home-made  bread  or  cake  would  not  suit 
them  half  so  well  as  a  bale  of  hay.  Their  systems 
require  coarse  vegetable  food;  and  because  it  is  coarse 
and  not  very  nutritious  they  must  have  great  quanti- 
ties of  it.  So  the  farmer  must  not  forget,  along  with 
the  finer  grains  and  vegetables  for  his  own  use,  to  grow 


32  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

or  gather  large  quantities  of  forage  for  his  stock.  The 
plants  which  furnish  our  chief  supply  of  forage  are  of 
two  classes:  the  clover  plants — such  as  alfalfa,  and  the 
red  and  white  clover;  and  the  grasses.  For  the  clover, 
although  often  spoken  of  as  a  grass,  is  evidently  a  very 
different  sort  of  plant;  it  is  more  nearly  related  to  the 
bean  or  the  pea  than  to  the  grasses;  this  will  be  evi- 
dent if  you  pick  to  pieces  a  flower  of  the  clover  and  one 
of  the  bean  and  compare  them. 

The  peculiarity  of  the  grasses  which  makes  them 
valuable  as  forage  plants  is,  that  they  have  come  to  de- 
pend, in  their  struggle  with  weeds  and  other  enemies, 
mainly  on  growing  as  a  thick  sward  at  the  base,  in  which 
other  plants  can  hardly  get  a  start;  and  then  in  order 
that  they  may  not  crowd  each  other  to  death,  they 
have  learned  to  grow  tall  and  slender  in  their  reach 
after  sunshine.  So  their  stems  and  leaves  are  stout 
and  coarse  and  abundant,  just  the  thing  that  suits  the 
alimentary  canal  of  the  horse  and  cow.  If  they  have 
developed  a  top  full  of  seeds  in  which  a  little  richer 
food  is  stored,  so  much  the  better,  provided  it  is 
plentifully  mixed  with  the  coarser  stems  and  leaves. 

Fruits. — In  some  cases  the  parent  plant  has  made 
double  provision  of  nutritious  matter  for  the  young 
plant,  and  this  device  has  given  us  some  of  our  most 
luscious  foods,  the  various  fruits.  In  the  apple  or  pear, 
for  instance,  not  only  is  the  little  plantlet  packed  away 
in  a  seed  which  contains  nourishment  to  start  the  germ 
into  growth,  but  these  seeds  are  embedded  in  a  still  larger 
mass  of  food,  the  apple  itself,  which  by  its  decay  fur- 
nishes a  rich  bed  from  which  the   growing  plant  may 


DIFFERENT  CLASSES  OF  FARM  PLANTS  33 

get  additional  nourishment  long  after  the  supply  in  the 
seed  is  used  up.  So  the  farmer  may  well  rescue  the 
apple  from  this  use  and  make#it  another  of  the  many 
foods  with  which  to  feed  the  world. 

How  the  Birds  Help. — Many  of  the  fruits,  as  the 
raspberry  and  the  currant,  are  brightly  colored,  and 
must  be  very  attractive  to  birds,  too  much  so,  perhaps, 
to  suit  us;  but  we  may  as  well  make  the  best  of  it, 
the  plant  itself  does  not  object  to  the  birds;  the  seeds 
found  in  these  bright  colored  fruits  are  hard  and  stony 
and  are  not  destroyed  when  eaten;  they  fall  unharmed 
to  the  earth  in  the  droppings  of  the  birds  and  so  are  scat- 
tered far  and  wide  from  the  parent  plant.  Can  we  doubt 
that  the  bright  color  of  the  fruit  and  the  stony  nature 
of  the  seeds  which  is  associated  with  it  were  intended 
for  this  very  purpose;  that  they  might  be  discovered 
and  eaten  by  the  birds,  and  thus  their  seeds  scattered 
abroad  where  they  have  a  better  chance  of  life  than  if 
they  had  fallen  under  the  parent  tree?  So  let  us  not 
find  too  much  fault  with  the  birds,  but  be  thankful 
rather  that  their  tastes  are  not  so  different  from  ours, 
and  that  the  juicy  berries  and  fruits  which  the  parent 
tree  has  hung  out  for  the  birds  are  equally  pleasing  to 
us,  and  make  another  of  the  choice  products  of  the 
farm. 

Trees. — There  are  some  other  things  which  the  farmer 
needs  besides  food  and  drink;  he  must  have  fuel  and 
shelter;  he  must  build  barns  and  fences  and  bridges. 
Now,  there  is  one  class  of  plants  whose  way  of  getting 
on  in  the  world  adapts  them  very  well  indeed  to  fur- 
nishing the  farmer  just  the  material  which  he  needs  for 


34 


NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


these  purposes.  The  tree  is  a  plant  which  depends  for 
its  success  in  life  mainly  on  its  own  bigness.  Its  scheme 
is  to  push  up  so  high  into  the  world  of  sunshine  that  the 

weeds  and  other  plants  cannot 
trouble  it.  To  this  end  it  must 
generally  have  the  means  of 
getting  a  quick  start  in  the 
race;  accordingly,  many  trees 
produce  nuts  or  acorns,  which 
are  seeds  with  a  particularly 
large  and  rich  supply  of  food. 
So  when  the  seed  germinates, 
the  shoot  pushes  up  very  rapidly 
and  soon  overtops  its  rivals  and 
gets  the  lion's  share  of  the  sun 
shine.  Now,  since  the  tree  has 
planned  to  grow  so  large  and 
tall,  it  will  have  a  new  adver- 
sary to  battle  with;  namely,  the 
wind.  The  smaller  plants  which 
strive  to  grow  in  the  shade  of 
the  woods  need  not  trouble 
themselves  to  form  stiff  stems, 
and  they  generally  do  not.  But 
the  tree  must  have  a  particularly 
stout  stem,  well  hardened  with 
woody  fiber,  and  it  must  bury 
its  great  roots  deep  in  the  soil  in 
order  to  anchor  the  tree  to  the 
earth,  so  that  it  may  stand  the 
pii'naro'ma^co?^^^^"''^'""^  Strain    of    wind    and    weather. 


36  ^EW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

What  a  contrast  there  is  in  this  respect  between  a  tree 
and  the  purslane  plant,  and  yet  how  well  each  succeeds 
in  its  own  way.  The  tree  insists  on  outgrowing  its 
humbler  neighbors  and  leaving  them  in  the  shade.  Some 
of  them  do  not  mind  this,  but  learn  to  thrive  best  in  the 
cool  and  dusky  forest ;  the  tree  itself  is  generally  thriftier 
where  it  is  partly  shaded  by  its  neighbors;  it  grows 
slowly  and  for  many  years  until  it  is  sturdy  and  strong. 
But  the  purslane  plant,  because  it  cannot  get  enough 
sunshine  where  the  trees  grow,  adopts  the  other  alterna- 
tive of  making  a  break  for  the  open  ground  where  there 
is  so  much  sunshine  that  even  a  sturdy  tree  would  hardly 
try  to  live  and  grow  there.  The  purslane  plant  by 
developing  a  weak,  pulpy  stem,  soft  and  juicy,  lives  and 
thrives  best  of  all  in  the  scorching  sun,  because  that  is 
the  life  to  which  it  is  best  adapted.  And- so  the  purslane 
would  make  very  poor  fuel  or  timber,  but  the  maple 
and  ^he  ash  and  the  oak  are  just  what  the  farmer  wants 
where  strength  and  durability  are  required. 

Ornamental  Plants. — While  the  plants  which  have 
thus  far  been  mentioned  contribute  most  to  man's  life 
and  health  and  comfort,  we  should  not  forget  that  this 
is  not  all  of  life,  but  that  the  farmer  will  be  a  happier 
and  probably  a  better  man'  if  he  also  sees  and  admires 
and  enjoys  some  of  the  beautiful  things  with  which  the 
world  abounds.  And  we  have  already  learned  that  many 
plants,  for  good  reasons  of  their  own,  have  found  it  worth 
while  to  be  beautiful  and  fragrant  and  to  welcome  and 
shelter  the  birds  with  their  concerts  of  song;  so  even  this 
peculiarity  of  plant  life  the  farmer  may  take  advantage 
of  to  make  his  home  more  enjoyable  and  attractive. 


DIFFERENT  CLASSES  OF  FARM  PLANTS 


37 


And  we  shall  see,  too,  that  he  may  not  only  gather 
about  him  the  beautiful  plants  with  which  the  world 
abounds,   but  he  may  even  increase  their  beauty  by 


Fig.  19.     Wild  and  cultivated  dahlia. 


developing  richer  and  more  showy  flowers,  just  as  he 
has  improved  the  useful  plants  by  developing  richer 
grains  and  sweeter  berries.  Many  of  the  more 
beautiful  flowers  of  the  garden  have  become  such  by 
reason  of  the  gardener's  intelligent  selection  and  culti- 
vation.    The  wild  rose,  for  example,  has  but  few  petals 


38  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

and  many  ovaries  and  seeds ;  for  the  rose  plant  was  nat- 
urally more  concerned  with  growing  good  seeds  than 
with  merely  looking  well.  All  that  was  needed  in  the 
way  of  show  was  just  color  enough  to  catch  the  eye  of 
the  bee,  and  win  a  visit  from  her,  and  so  manage  the 
matter  of  getting  its  pollen  distributed.  But  the 
gardener  does  not  care  for  the  rose  seeds;  he  can  propa- 
gate new  plants  from  slips  set  in  the  ground.  So  he 
has  used  such  modes  of  selection  and  cultivation  that, 
in  the  finer  varieties  of  the  garden  rose,  nearly  all  of 
the  stamens  have  been  developed  into  showy  petals, 
forming  a  mass  of  beautiful  color.  Never  mind  if  the 
plants  have  lost  their  power  of  producing  seeds;  seeds 
are  very  important  sometimes,  but  here  we  do  not 
care  for  them;  instead,  we  have  gotten  something 
that  is  a  joy  forever;  for  what  is  more  beautiful 
in  form  and  color  and  fragrance  than  a  full-blown 
rose?  The  farmer  may  use  the  habit  of  compact  growth 
which  the  grasses  possess  to  furnish  himself  not  only  a 
meadow,  but  a  lawn.  He  may  use  the  sturdy  habit 
of  trees  to  furnish  shade  as  well  as  timber.  He  may 
even  combine  beauty  and  usefulness  in  the  fragrance 
and  bloom  and  fruitage  of  the  orchard.  He  may  thus 
make  his  home  not  a  mere  treadmill  in  which  to  live  and 
work  and  earn,  but  a  place  of  beauty  and  comfort  and  en- 
joyment as  well.  And  the  success  of  the  farmer  will  de- 
pend not  merely  upon  his  own  hard  work,  although  there 
must  be  plenty  of  that,  but  also  upon  knowing  how  to  make 
the  most  of  his  partnership  with  nature,  with  the  soil  and 
the  sunshine,  with  the  plants  and  the  domestic  animals; 
yes,  even  with  the  insects  and  the  birds  of  the  farm. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  IMPORTANT  FARM  CROPS 

Maize  (Indian  Corn,  Corn). —  Maize  is  a  south  Mexi- 
can plant,  which  was  first  cultivated  by  the  inhabitants 
of  America  nearly  if  not  quite  two  thousand  years  ago. 
In  the  twelfth  century  its  use  had  spread  to  the  Rio 
Grande  on  the  north,  and  to  Chile  on  the  south. 
Later  it  was  used  by  the  North  American  Indians  as  far 
north  as  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  southern  coast  of 
Maine,  while  in  South  America  its  use  had  spread  into 
Venezuela,  Peru,  and  Bolivia. 

It  was  thus  an  old  cultivated  plant  when  Columbus 
discovered  the  New  World,  and  among  the  strange 
sights  which  he  saw  were  the  fields  of  maize.  When  the 
Pilgrims  came  to  New  England,  in  1620,  they  found 
fields  of  maize,  and  the  following  spring  they  planted 
it  for  their  own  use,  being  taught  how  to  care  for  it  by 
friendly  Indians. 

The  name  "maize"  was  introduced  into  Europe  by 
Columbus,  who  adopted  it  from  the  Indians  who  grew 
it  on  the  islands  he  visited.  As  all  kinds  of  edible  grains 
(as  wheat,  oats,  rye,  barley,  etc.)  are  called  "corn"  in 
England,  it  was  quite  natural  that  the  early  English 
settlers  should  speak  of  maize  as  "Indian  corn,"  and 
from  this  has  come  the  American  usage  of  speaking  of  it 
simply  as  "corn."  Strictly  speaking  it  is  maize,  but 
since  it  is  the  largest,  and  perhaps  the  most  important, 

39 


40  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

"corn  plant"  for  this  country,  it  has  usurped  the  name 
' '  com  "  for  its  exclusive  use. 

We  do  not  know  the  wild  state  of  maize,  although  it  is 
thought  by  some  botanists  that  the  tall  Mexican  grass 
known  as  teosinte  may  be  wild  maize.  Teosinte  has  a 
tassel  which  closely  resembles  that  of  maize,  but  its 
ears  are  very  slender,  and  each  bears  only  a  few  grains, 
in  two  rows.  Possibly  the  ear  of  maize  came  from  the 
union  of  several  of  these  slender  ears.  At  any  rate,  it  is 
interesting  to  remember  that  on  the  ears  of  maize  the 
rows  are  always  even-numbered,  as  if  formed  by  the  union 
of  several  two-rowed,  slender  ears. 

During  the  long  time  that  maize  has  been  under 
cultivation  it  has  become  so  changed  that  six  spe- 
cies have  been  produced,  namely:  (i)  Pod-corn,  (2) 
Pop-corn,  (3)  Flint-corn,  (4)  Dent-corn,  (5)  Soft- 
corn,  (6)  Sweet-corn.  These  again  have  developed 
numerous  varieties,  especially  in  those  species  which 
have  been  much  cultivated  by  white  people  in  this 
country. 

In  Pod-corn  each  kernel  is  ^surrounded  by  a  little 
husk,  and  the  whole  ear  also  is  covered  with  husks. 
This  species  is  grown  with  us  as  a  curiosity  only. 

In  Pop-corn  the  plants  are  small,  as  are  the  ears 
also,  and  the  kernels  are  very  hard,  and  when  heated 
they  suddenly  bu^st  open,  turning  inside  out.  Twenty- 
five  varieties  are  known. 

Flint-corn  is  much  like  the  last,  the  plants  and 
ears  being  rather  small,  and  the  kernels  very  hard. 
However,  the  kernels  are  all  round-topped,  and  they  do 
not  burst  open  on  heating.     The  ears  are  commonly 


THE  IMPORTANT  FARM  CROPS  4I 

eight-rowed,  and  are  long  and  slender.  There  are  sixty- 
nine  varieties,  many  of  which  are  grown  in  the  far 
northern  states. 

In  Dent-corn  the  plant  and  ears  are  larger  than  in 
any  other  species,  while  the  kernels  are  not  as  hard  as  in 
flint-corn,  and  are  dented  at  the  top.  The  hard, 
horny  structure  which  fills  the  whole  of  the  flint  kernel 
is  found  only  along  the  edges  in  the  dent,  the  remainder 
being  softer  and  more  granular.  The  ears  are  com- 
monly from  twelve  to  twenty-four  rowed,  and  are  rough 
on  account  of  the  dents  on  the  kernels.  Three  hundred 
and  twenty-three  varieties  are  grown  in  different  por- 
tions of  this  country. 

In  soft-corn  the  plant  is  usually  small  or  of  medium 
height,  and  the  ears  small,  and  eight  to  fourteen  rowed. 
The  kernels  have  no  hard,  horny  portion,  the  whole 
substance  being  soft  and  granular,  and  as  a  consequence 
they  may  be  crushed  easily  into  meal,  for  which  pur- 
pose this  species  was  grown  by  the  southwestern  Indians. 
Twenty-seven  varieties  are  known,  some  of  which  are 
grown  for  grinding  into  white  meal. 

Sweet-corn  is  peculiar  in  having  soft,  sweet  ker- 
nels, which  become  tough,  horny  and  shriveled  when 
dry.  The  plants  are  small,  and  the  small  ears  are  us- 
ually from  eight  to  fourteen  rowed,  although  in  some 
large  varieties  they  are  from  sixteen  to  twenty  or  even 
twenty-four  rowed.     Sixty-three  varieties    are    known. 

When  a  kernel  of  maize  germinates  it  first  sends  out  a 
root  from  the  lower  end,  and  then  the  little  roll  of  leaves 
pushes  out  some  distance  above.  About  this  time  or  a 
little  later  other  roots  come  out  at  different  places  on 


42  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

the  side  of  the  kernel.  For  some  time  the  principal 
work  of  the  roots  is  to  get  water  for  the  young  plant, 
the  kernel  containing  food  enough  to  last  for  ten  to  fif- 
teen days.  So  the  roots  grow  out  rapidly  in  every 
direction  and  collect  water  from  the  soil. 

Before  the  food  in  the  kernel  is  all  used  the  leaves 
must  be  in  condition  to  make  food  from  the  gases  in 
the  air  and  the  water  and  solutions  taken  in  by  the 
roots.  The  plants  have  no  difficulty  in  getting  all  the 
gases  they  need,  but  sometimes  they  do  not  have  enough 
water. 

The  manufacture  of  food  takes  place  only  in  the  green 
leaves;  so  the  larger  and  more  numerous  they  are,  the 
more  food  they  make.  Anything  which  injures  the 
leaves  reduces  the  amount  of  food  which  the  plant 
makes  for  its  use. 

When  full-grown  the  maize  plant  bears  a  tassel  of 
jtaminate  flowers  above,  and  an  ear  of  pistillate  flowers 
on  a  short  side  branch.  The  purpose  of  the  former  is 
to  produce  pollen,  while  the  purpose  of  the  latter  is  to 
form  the  kernels. 

In  each  tassel-flower  there  are  three  stamens,  each 
containing  about  2,500  pollen-cells.  In  an  average- 
sized  tassel  of  the  larger  varieties  there  are  about  7,200 
stamens,  making  about  18,000,000  of  pollen-cells  for 
every  plant  in  the  field. 

In  each  young  ear  of  the  larger  varieties  there  may 
be  as  many  as  1,000  kernels,  each  with  its  long,  thread- 
like style.  So  there  are  about  1,000  threads  in  the 
"  silk  "  of  the  ear.  Each  one  is  somewhat  hairy  near  the 
tip,  and  this  portion  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  as  it 


THE  IMPORTANT  FARM  CROPS  43 

is  on  it  that  the  pollen-cells  must  fall  and  grow  in  order 
that  the  young  kernels  may  become  fertile.  Unless 
at  least  one  pollen-cell  germinates  on  each  silk  thread 
the  young  kernel  at  its  base  will  not  develop  into  a  full- 
grown  kernel. 

The  fertilized  kernel  soon  begins  to  enlarge,  and  a 
tiny  plant  grows  on  its  upper  side.  While  this  is  taking 
place  starch  is  being  packed  away  in  the  kernel  at  the 
side  of  the  little  plant.  By  the  time  the  latter  is  as  large 
as  it  usually  grows  in  the  seed  nearly  all  of  the  available 
room  is  filled  with  starch.  The  seed  is  now  complete, 
but  it  is  still  soft  and  watery,  and  the  drying  out  of  this 
moisture  constitutes  the  last  stage  of  the  ripening  pro- 
cess. 

Maize  is  subject  to  several  diseases,  the  most  serious 
of  which  is  the  smut  of  the  ears.  This  is  caused  by  a 
minute  fungus  which  lives  in  the  tissues  of  the  stem 
and  leaves  and  at  length  punctures  the  ears.  Here  it 
thrives  upon  the  rich  food  in  the  young  kernels,  and 
finally  produces  its  own  black  spores,  which  are  the 
tiny  seeds  of  this  fungus,  and  constitute  the  black, 
powdery  mass  in  the  affected  ears.  These  spores  are 
the  means  of  its  propagation,  and  when  these  are  allowed 
to  fall  to  the  ground  they  infect  it,  so  that  next  year  it  is 
almost  certain  that  there  will  be  more  smut  in  case  the 
field  contains  maize. 

Smut  may  be  reduced  very  much  by  carefully  col- 
lecting and  burning  all  smutted  ears.  A  rotation  of 
crops  is  good  as  this  smut  does  not  affect  any  of  the 
other  crops.  It  does  little  or  no  good  to  soak  the  seed 
corn  in  a  solution  of  copper  sulphate  before  planting. 


44  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

Wheat. —  It  is  not  certainly  known  where  or  when 
wheat  originated,  as  it  came  into  cultivation  so  long 
ago  that  no  records  of  its  first  introduction  remain. 
Some  preserved  wheat  grains  foimd  in  Egypt  are  regard- 
ed as  more  than  5,000  years  old.  A  low,  bearded  grass, 
called  wild  wheat,  growing  in  southern  Europe  and 
Asia,  has  been  suggested  as  possibly  the  wild  state  of 
wheat,  but  this  has  not  yet  been  proved.  At  any  rate, 
we  may  say  that  wheat  originated  in  the  Old  World, 
probably  in  that  part  of  it  adjoining  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  or  in  the  region  to  the  eastward. 

Eight  specimens  of  wheat  are  of  interest  to  us,  namely: 
(i)  Bread  wheats,  (2)  Club  wheat,  (3)  Poulard  wheats, 
(4)  Durum  wheats,  (5)  Polish  wheats,  (6)  Spelt,  (7) 
Emmer,  and  (8)  Einkorn.  These  again  have  given 
rise  to  many  varieties,  each  adapted  to  some  condition 
of  soil,  climate,  or  the  particular  needs  of  the  community. 

The  Bread  wheats  include  nearly  all  of  those  kinds 
commonly  grown  in  the  United  States.  The  number 
of  varieties  now  known  is  about  one  thousand.  These 
are  classed  as,  (i)  winter  wheats,  when  sown  in  the 
autumn,  and  (2)  spring  wheats,  when  sown  in  the  spring, 
and  these  again  into  (a)  hard,  and  (6)  soft  wheats, 
according  to  the  hardness  of  the  kernels.  In  some 
varieties  the  heads  are  bearded  (bearded  wheats)  while 
others  are  not  bearded  (smooth  wheats).  Again,  the 
varieties  are  spoken  of  as  early,  or  late  wheats. 

The  soft  winter  wheats,  which  vary  in  color  of  grain 
from  amber  to  white,  require  considerable  moisture,  and 
a  mild,  even  temperature.  They  are  grown  from 
Maine  to  the  mountains  of  Virginia,  in  western  and 


THE  IMPORTANT  FARM  CROPS  45 

northern  Europe,  Japan,  and  portions  of  China,  India, 
AustraHa,  and  Argentina.  The  hard  winter  wheats, 
which  are  red-grained  and  usually  bearded,  are  grown 
where  the  summers  are  hot  and  dry,  as  in  Oklahoma, 
Kansas,  northern  Missouri,  southern  Nebraska  and 
Iowa,  in  Hungary  and  Roumania,  southern  Russia, 
Asiatic  Turkey,  Persia,  and  northern  India.  Hard 
spring  wheats  resemble  the  preceding  and  grow  under 
nearly  the  same  climatic  conditions,  with,  however, 
shorter  summers  and  more  severe  winters,  as  in  northern 
Nebraska  and  Iowa,  North  and  South  Dakota,  Minne- 
sota, northern  Wisconsin,  central  and  western  Canada, 
eastern  Russia,  and  southern  Siberia.  The  white  wheats 
are  adapted  to  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  Pacific  states, 
the  Caucasus,  Turkestan,  Chile,  and  portions  of  Austra- 
lia. In  Illinois,  Indiana,  Michigan,  and  Ohio  semi- 
hard wheats  are  grown,  while  in  the  southern  states 
from  Arkansas  to  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  North  Carolina, 
and  Virginia,  early  varieties  of  soft  or  semi-hard  wheats 
are  preferred. 

A  wheat  kernel  germinates  by  sending  out  a  little 
root  from  its  more  pointed  end,  and  this  is  followed  by 
the  stem  and  leaves  which  push  out  from  its  rounded 
side  between  the  root  and  the  middle  of  the  kernel. 
Other  roots  grow  out  later  from  near  the  leaves,  so  that 
the  plant  soon  has  a  cluster  of  many  roots  upon  which 
to  depend  for  food. 

In  growing,  the  wheat  plant  remains  single  unless  it  is 
well  fed,  when  it  branches  (stools)  just  at  the  ground, 
forming  a  cluster  of  stems.  For  a  long  time  the  stems 
are  short,  but  when  they  have  formed  all  of  their  leaves 


46  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

each  stem-joint  rapidly  elongates,  so  that  in  a  few 
days  the  whole  plant  is  much  taller.  The  young  head 
is  all  this  time  on  a  short  stalk  deep  in  the  folds  of  the 
upper  leaves.  Its  stalk  now  elongates  and  pushes  it  up 
into  the  air. 

The  head  consists  of  many  scales  (chaff)  inclosing 
and  hiding  fifty  to  one  hundred  little  flowers,  each  of 
which  has  three  stamens  and  one  pistil  (young  kernel) 
with  two  feathery  stigmas.  These  flowers,  therefore, 
are  perfect,  and  not  of  two  kinds,  as  in  maize. 

The  lower  flowers  are  the  first  to  mature,  and  then 
open  for  a  few  minutes,  the  stamens  and  stigmas  being 
thrust  out.  Much  of  the  pollen  falls  out  at  this  time 
and  is  carried  away  by  the  wind,  but  enough  usually 
remains  in  each  flower  to  fertilize  the  young  kernel. 
The  pollen  which  blows  away  may  fall  on  other  wheat 
flowers  and  fertilize  them.  It  takes  several  days  for  all 
of  the  flowers  in  each  head  to  open  and  become  fer- 
tilized, those  at  the  top  being  the  last. 

The  kernel  when  young  is  almost  globular,  but  as  it 
grows  longer  and  broader  its  sides  are  folded  backward 
so  as  to  leave  a  deep  crease  on  its  back.  When  full- 
grown  it  is  filled  with  closely  packed  starch,  but  it  is 
still  soft  and  watery,  and  this  surplus  water  must  dry 
out  before  it  is  fully  ripe. 

Wheat  is  subject  to  many  diseases,  the  most  common 
of  which  are  smut  and  rust,  which  are  caused  by  minute 
fimgi  which  live  in  the  plants.  Loose  smut  attacks  and 
destroys  the  heads,  and  turns  them  into  naked,  black 
stems.  Close  smut  also  attacks  the  heads,  but  it  de- 
stroys only  the  interior  of  the  kernels,  which  it  turns  into 


THE  IMPORTANT  FARM  CROPS  47 

black,  fetid  masses  of  spores.  Soaking  the  seed-wheat 
in  a  solution  of  copper  sulphate  just  before  sowing  is 
recommended  for  preventing  these  diseases. 

Rust  is  often  found  attacking  the  leaves  and  stems. 
Early  in  the  season  it  is  red  or  yellow,  and  is  then  called 
red  rust,  while  later  it  is  black,  and  is  then  known  as 
black  rust.  Red  rust  spreads  very  rapidly  from  plant 
to  plant  in  the  field,  but  the  black  rust  lives  over  the 
winter  on  the  straw,  and  from  this  the  new  wheat  crop 
is  infected.  Some  varieties  of  wheat  are  not  often 
attacked  by  rust,  and  the  sowing  of  such  kinds  is  the 
best  preventive  of  this  disease. 

Oats. — The  oat  plant  appears  to  have  originally  grown 
wild  in  southeastern  Europe,  where  it  was  first  brought 
into  cultivation  about  two  thousand  years  ago.  It  is 
not  now  known  in  the  wild  state,  although  there  are 
many  closely  related  kinds  which  grow  wild  in  many 
places  in  the  northern  hemisphere. 

By  long  cultivation  we  have  produced  many  varieties 
of  oats,  but  these  are  not  as  numerous  nor  are  they  as 
well  marked  as  in  wheat.  More  than  one  hundred  and 
fifty  varieties  are  grown  in  the  United  States.  These 
are  of  two  general  forms:  spreading  oats,  and  side  oats; 
and  these  again  may  be  chaffy,  or  naked  (hulless). 

The  germination  of  the  oat  grain  is  very  much  like 
that  of  wheat,  and  the  growth  of  the  young  plant  also 
is  quite  like  that  of  wheat.  When  the  head  appears 
the  flowers  soon  open  and  the  pollen  is  blown  by  the 
wind  from  flower  to  flower. 

The  fertilized  young  kernel  grows  quite  like  that  of 
wheat,  only  here  the  chaff  adheres  to  it,  so  that  at  ma- 


48  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

turity  in  the  common  oats  the  kernel  is  tightly 
inclosed  within  the  chaff.  In  hulless  oats  the  chaff 
does  not  adhere  in  this  way,  so  that  the  kernel  is  free. 

The  diseases  of  the  oat  plant  are  similar  to  those  of 
the  wheat.  Thus  there  is  a  smut  which  attacks  the  heads 
and  turns  them  into  black  masses,  the  kernels  being 
entirely  destroyed.  This  disease  is  caused  by  a  minute 
fungus  much  like  that  which  causes  loose  smut  in  wheat, 
but  it  is  not  exactly  the  same.  The  same  preventives 
may  be  used  as  in  wheat. 

The  rust  attacks  the  oat  plant  also,  and  here  again, 
while  it  looks  much  like  that  on  wheat  it  is  not  exactly 
the  same.  Wheat  rust  will  not  infect  oats.  Some 
kinds  of  oats  are  not  as  much  affected  as  others,  and 
these  are  the  kinds  which  should  be  sown. 

Barley.— The  barleys  originated  in  the  region  east  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  many  centuries  ago,  certainly 
as  long  as  2,500  years  ago,  and  perhaps  much  longer. 
The  simpler  kinds  have  been  found  in  a  wild  state  in  the 
region  mentioned,  but  not  the  larger  kinds. 

There  are  three  principal  kinds  of  barley,  and  these 
have  probably  originated  by  long  cultivation.  These 
are  known  as  two-rowed  barley,  four-rowed  barley,  and 
six-rowed  barley,  and  these  again  have  produced  many 
varieties.  In  most  of  the  varieties  the  chaff  tightly 
surrounds  the  kernel,  but  there  are  some  naked  or  hul- 
less kinds,  just  as  there  are  in  oats. 

The  germination  and  growth  of  barley  are  so  much 
like  those  of  wheat  and  oats  that  they  need  not  be 
separately  described. 

The  heads  are  more  like  the  heads  of  wheat  than  oats. 


THE  IMPORTANT  FARM  CROPS         49 

In  two-rowed  barley  there  are  two  rows  of  kernels  up 
and  down  the  head,  in  four-rowed  barley  there  are  four 
such  rows  of  kernels,  while  in  six-rowed  barley  there  are 
six  rows.  Usually  there  are  long,  rough  beards  on  the 
heads,  but  there  are  some  varieties  which  have  no 
beards. 

The  young  seeds  are  fertilized  as  they  are  in  wheat 
and  oats,  and  the  young  plant  forms  and  grows  in  the 
seed  quite  as  the  other  grains  already  described. 

The  principal  diseases  are  smut  and  rust,  which  again 
are  much  like  those  in  the  wheat  and  oats.  The  sugges- 
tions already  made  as  to  preventives  may  be  repeated 
for  the  diseases  of  barley. 

Rye. —  Rye  is  another  old  plant  in  cultivation,  yet 
it  does  not  extend  back  as  far  as  many  other  cultivated 
plants.  It  appears  to  have  originated  in  southern  and 
southeastern  Europe  nearly  two  thousand  years  ago. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  found  recently  in  a  wild  state, 
in  southern  Europe,  where  it  escapes  from  cultiva- 
tion very  easily,  which  may  indicate  its  original  home. 

Rye  has  not  produced  many  varieties  in  the  course  of 
its  cultivation.  It  commonly  is  cultivated  in  Europe 
for  its  nutritious  kernels,  which  are  used  for  human 
food,  but  in  this  country  it  is  not  much  grown,  excepting 
for  food  for  domestic  animals,  and  for  its  long,  straight 
straw. 

In  its  germination,  growth,  and  fertilization  it  does 
not  differ  much  from  wheat,  to  which  it  is  quite  nearly 
related.  The  kernels  have  the  same  structure  as  those 
of  wheat,  but  they  are  longer  and  somewhat  more  slen- 
der. 


50  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

Rye  is  singularly  free  from  diseases.  The  one  which 
is  most  common  is  the  ergot,  which  is  produced  by  a 
minute  fungus  which  attacks  the  young  kernel  about 
the  time  of  blossoming.  The  ergot-fungus  at  first 
grows  on  and  in  the  kernel,  and  then  forms  a  large  black- 
ish grain  about  as  thick  as  a  kernel  of  rye,  and  several 
times  as  long.  When  full  grown  the  ergot  grain  is  an 
inch  long,  and  nearly  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 
It  is  hard  and  brittle,  and  of  a  white  color  inside.  It  is 
poisonous  to  stock  and  sometimes  causes  much  loss. 


1.  Give  as  many  different  cultivated  plants  as  you  can.  and 
tell  what  peculiarity  or  habit  of  the  plant  makes  it  of  value  to 
us.  Can  you  think  of  any  of  our  food  that  does  not  come  di- 
rectly or  indirectly  from  plants  ? 

2.  Which  of  the  six  species  of  corn  are  grown  in  your 
county  ? 

3.  Is  the  wheat  grown  in  your  county  a  hard  or  a  soft  wheat? 
Visit  a  flour-mill  and  find  out  all  you  can  about  the  manufac- 
ture of  flour.     What  is  macaroni  wheat? 

4.  What  is  a  plant  disease?     Give  some  that  affect  each  crop. 

5.  Which  of  our  farm  plants  were  brought  from  the  east- 
em  hemisphere?     Which  were  found  in  America? 


.    CHAPTER  V 

THE   INSECTS   OF  THE   FARM 

Insects  in  General. — We  find  a  great  many  kinds  of 
living  creatures  about  the  farm,  on  the  prairies,  and  in 
the  woods.  All  of  these  are  of  interest  to  us  on  account 
of  their  ways  of  living — some  being  of  use  and  others  of 
harm.  To  know  something  about  them  is  of  importance 
to  the  farmer,  as  well  as  to  all  other  persons  who  culti- 
vate the  ground  for  the  purpose  of  growing  different 
kinds  of  plants.  Even  housekeepers  must  know  a  little 
about  some  kinds  of  these  small  animals. 

Many  of  these  creatures  have  jointed  bodies  and 
jointed  legs  and  feelers.  Some  of  them  are  made  so  as 
to  live  in  water,  while  others  can  exist  only  on  land. 
Most  people  call  all  of  these  jointed  animals  "bugs"  or 
"insects.  "  But  those  of  us  who  know  better  have  differ- 
ent names  for  many  of  them.  Only  those  that  have  six 
legs  when  full  grown  are  the  ones  we  call  insects.  Those 
that  have  eight  legs  belong  to  the  spiders  and  their  rela- 
tives, the  mites  and  scorpions.  Those  that  have  twelve 
or  more  legs  and  that  live  in  damp  places  or  in  water  are 
called  sow-bugs,  or  more  correctly,  crustaceans.  They 
are  the  relatives  of  the  cray-fishes  and  lobsters.  The 
many-legged,  worm-like  creatures  should  be  called 
centipedes,  or  "many  legs.  "  One  of  each  of  these  forms 
is  shown  in  this  picture  so  as  to  help  those  who  do  not 
know  how  to  remember  them  in  any  other  way. 

51 


52 


NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


Fig.  20.     Insect  (caterpillar),  spider,  myriapod,  and  sow-bug. 


Of  course  all  of  us  know  a  few  things  about  insects, 
as  well  as  about  their  distant  relatives  which  are  men- 
tioned above;  but,  in  order  to  help  others  who  do  not 
know  so  much  about  them,  we  will  have  to  tell  some 
additional  things  concerning  them  here. 

An  insect,  besides  having  six  legs,  has  its  body  made 
up  of  three  separate  parts.  These  are  the  head;  the 
thorax,  or  middle  part;  and  the  hind  portion,  or  abdo- 
men. Some  kinds  have  wings,  but  others  do  not. 
Some  jump,  a  few  crawl,  and  others  fly.  Some  bite  off 
and  chew  what  they  eat,  others  only  suck  the  juices  or 
sap  of  plants,  or  blood  of  animals.  Instead  of  growing 
larger  and  larger  in  a  steady  way,  they  shed  their  skins 
a  number  of  times.  Each  time  this  is  done  they  come 
out  of  their  hard  old  skins  covered  with  soft  new  ones 
that  soon  stretch  to  two  or  more  times  the  size  of  the 


THE  INSECTS  OF  THE  FARM 


53 


old  ones.  Most  insects,  but  not  all,  are  also  quite  differ- 
ent looking  when  young  from  what  they  are  after  becom- 
ing full  grown.  The  "grub  worm"  is  not  at  all  like 
the  June  beetle,  which  lays  the  egg  from  which  it  hatches. 
The  caterpillar  is  very  different  from  the  butterfly  or 
moth  of  which  it  is  the  young.  The  "wriggler"  in  the 
rainwater  barrel  does  not  look  at  all  like  its  parent,  the 


Fig.  21.   Hackberry  butterfly  in  its  different  stages. 


mosquito;  nor  does  the  maggot  resemble  the  green  or 
bluebottle  fly  that  lays  its  eggs  on  decaying  meat. 

A  number  of  other  things  about  insects  are  very  differ- 
ent from  what  we  find  them  in  animals  like  dogs,  mice, 
birds,  and  snakes.  An  insect  does  not  breathe  by  using 
lungs  or  its  nose,  but  has  little  holes  placed  along  the 
two  sides  of  its  body  through  which  the  air  passes  in  and 
out.  Its  blood  is  transparent  like  water,  and  is  pushed 
through  the  body  by  the  beating  of  a  large  blood  vein, 
or  artery,  which  lies  along  or  near  its  back,  instead  of 
by  a  heart.     The  brain  is  scattered  in  knots  or  bunches 


54  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

along  the  principal  nerve  situated  near  the  lower  side 
in  the  middle  of  the  body,  instead  of  being  all  in  its 
head. 

Besides  these  differences  we  find  that  insects'  skele- 
tons are  on  the  outside,  instead  of  inside  their  bodies, 
as  we  find  them  in  ourselves,  birds,  and  other  animals 
which  we  know.  Then,  besides,  insects  have  ears  and 
eyes  only  when  they  really  need  them.  Their  ears  are 
never  on  their  heads,  but  may  be  found  on  their  legs,  or 
even  on  their  abdomens.  Only  those  that  sing  or  make 
noises  have  ears;  and  one  kind  makes  all  its  noise  with 
its  ears.  Some  insects  have  two  kinds  of  eyes.  These 
are,  first,  the  large  compound  eyes,  as  they  are  called, 
which  are  composed  of  a  great  many  small  ones,  joined 
together  so  closely  as  to  make  them  look  like  simple  eyes 
with  the  surface  regularly  roughened.  When  examined 
closely  with  the  microscope  these  seem  to  be  made  of 
little  plates  which  are  arranged  to  look  like  a  piece  of 
capped  honeycomb.  Second,  the  small  simple  eyes 
which  are  placed  between  the  larger  or  compound  eyes, 
either  on  top  of  the  head,  or  else  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
face.  One  of  these  little  eyes  is  placed  in  the  middle, 
and  the  other  two  are  between  it  and  the  large  eyes, 
but  generally  above  or  back  of  it.  They  are  to  see  with 
in  a  different  way  from  that  of  the  compound  eyes ;  but 
just  how  we  cannot  say  here.  Insects  very  likely  smell 
with  their  feelers;  and  in  some  kinds,  perhaps,  also  with 
their  legs  or  feet. 

Insects,  like  many  other  kinds  of  creatures,  are  cold- 
blooded, and  can  stand  freezing  without  being  killed. 
A  great  many  kinds  live  over  winter  hidden  away  among 


THE  INSECTS  OF  THE  FARM  55 

old  grass,  under  stones,  fallen  leaves,  logs,  loose  bark, 
and  in  the  ground.  In  the  spring  they  come  out  of  these 
hiding-places,  and  move  about  just  as  if  they  never  had 
been  frozen  stiff.  Their  eggs  and  young  can  also  freeze 
solid  and  not  be  hurt.  This  way  of  passing  the  winter  is 
called  hibernating. 

Some  kinds  of  insects  live  much  longer  than  others; 
and  some  raise  several  generations  of  young  in  a  single 
summer.  Many  are  more  hardy  than  others  and  can  with- 
stand greater  changes  of  climate;  while  different  forms 
are  able  to  live  only  under  certain  limited  conditions. 
A  few  kinds  are  furnished  with  arrangements  for  defend- 
ing themselves  against  their  enemies,  as  are  the  skunk  and 
the  weasel.  Others  can  and  do  feed  on  a  number  of  differ- 
ent plants ;  while  still  others  attack  only  a  single  kind  of 
food-plant.  Each  form  has  its  particular  enemies, 
which,  like  the  hosts  themselves,  are  likewise  subject  to 
the  influences  of  climate  and  to  the  attacks  of  diseases 
and  enemies. 

Knowing  all  these  things  about  insects,  we  can  begin 
to  understand  why  some  kinds  are  more  numerous  and 
do  rnore  harm  than  others. 

Insects  generally  die  soon  after  laying  their  eggs. 
A  great  many  die  even  before  their  eggs  hatch,  hence 
do  not  live  to  see  their  young.  A  few,  however,  like 
the  queen  of  the  honey-bee,  live  much  longer,  and  even 
take  some  care  of  their  young.  Some  insects  eat  all  the 
time  while  growing,  never  going  to  sleep,  and  stopping 
to  rest  only  long  enough  to  shed  their  skins.  Such  kinds 
as  live  on  flesh  have  been  known  to  eat  two  hundred  times 
their  own  weight  of  food  in  a  single  day;  and  certain 


$6  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

kinds  of  caterpillars  may  increase  in  size  ten  thousand 
times  inside  of  thirty  days. 

Where  Found. — Insects  are  found  in  all  countries, 
at  all  times  of  the  year,  and  under  nearly  every  condi- 
tion. They  live  in  our  homes,  gardens,  and  fields,  in  the 
woods,  and  on  the  prairies;  they  occur  upon  and  within 
the  bodies  of  our  domestic  and  wild  animals,  as  well  as  in 
the  air,  water,  and  earth.  No  region  is  without  one  or 
more  forms  of  these  creatures.  They  enter  into  and 
affect  our  daily  lives  more  or  less  everywhere  and  under 
nearly  every  Condition.  We  are  more  or  less  dependent 
upon  them;  or  at  least  use  many  of  them  or  their  pro- 
ducts in  our  food,  clothing,  and  the  arts,  almost  every 
day  of  our  lives.  In  fact,  among  insects  we  find  both 
friend  and  foe,  be  our  calling  in  life  what  it  may.  They 
come  across  our  path  as  enemies  to  all  kinds  of  useful 
plants,  as  parasites  that  attack  and  infest  useful  ani- 
mals. We  may  meet  them  on  the  other  hand  as  friends 
that  help  to  fertilize  and  gather  honey  from  flowers, 
make  wax,  spin  silk,  clean  away  dead  animals  and  rot- 
ting plants.  We  may  also  meet  them  as  parasites  upon 
and  within  the  bodies  of  the  enemies  mentioned  above. 

The  Proportionate  Number  of  Insects. — About  nine- 
tenths  of  all  animal  forms  are  insects.  The  other  one- 
tenth  includes  the  forms  described  above  as  being  their 
near  relatives,  as  well  as  the  fishes,  birds,  angle  and 
other  worms,  reptiles,  and  other  four-footed  animals  like 
mice,  cats,  sheep,  horses,  and  monkeys.  But  we  can 
notice  only  a  few  of  them  here. 


CHAPTER  VI 
USEFUL  INSECTS 

If  we  remember  what  has  just  been  said  about  insects 
in  general,  we  already  know  that  they  are  not  all  harm- 
ful or  destructive,  but  that  there  are,  perhaps,  just  as 
many  useful  ones  as  there  are  of  the  other  kind.  Of 
course  we  who  live  in  the  country  know  all  about  this. 
It  is  mostly  for  the  benefit  of  the  folks  who  live  in 
towns  and  cities  that  we  must  tell  many  of  these  things 
about  insects. 

Some  of  the  most  usaful  insects  are  the  bees,  wasps, 
ichneumon  flies,  flesh  flies,  dragon  flies,  tiger-beetles, 
burying-beetles,  lady-birds,  and  silk- worms.  All  of 
these,  and  many  others,  live  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
help  us  in  different  ways. 

Bees  and  What  They  Do. — The  bees,  of  which  there 
are  a  great  many  kinds,  spend  much  of  their  time  in 
visiting  flowers,  where  they  gather  honey  for  themselves, 
and  pollen  for  their  young.  While  doing  this,  they 
carry  the  pollen,  or  yellow  dust,  from  one  flower  to 
another,  and  without  knowing  it  do  just  the  very  thing 
that  must  be  done  before  there  can  be  fruit  or  seeds. 

The  honey-bee,  which  has  been  tamed  and  taught  to 
live  in  hives,  stores  honey  for  fall,  winter,  and  early 
spring  use,  and  for  the  wax-makers  to  eat  while  they  are 
furnishing  wax  to  the  comb-makers.  The  other  workers 
about  the  hive  also  live  on  honey.     In  a  bee-hive  there 


58  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

are  workers,  a  queen,  which  is  the  mother,  and  drones. 
The  drones  are  the  males,  and  do  not  help  about  the  hive 
nor  gather  honey,  or  pollen.  When  the  swarming  sea- 
son is  over  they  are  killed  by  the  workers.  Some  time 
you  will  learn  a  great  deal  more  about  honey-bees  be- 
cause every  farmer  and  fruit  grower  should  have  one  or 
more  hives  of  these  useful  insects  on  the  place. 

Bumble-Bees. — Every  boy  and  many  of  the  girls 
who  live  in  the  country  can  tell  you  where  to  find  them. 
Like  the  honey-bee,  they  gather  both  honey  and  pollen, 
which  are  carried  to  their  nests  and  stored  for  future  use. 
If  we  rob  a  nest  we  learn  that  some  of  the  cells,  or  little 
sacks,  which  we  find  there  are  filled  with  honey,  and 
others  with  a  yellowish  green  paste.  This  last  is  the 
"bee-bread,"  as  it  is  called.  It  is  made  by  mixing 
pollen  and  honey  together,  and  is  the  kind  of  food 
the  little  bees  must  eat. 

How  They  Live  and  Raise  their  Young. — If  we 
take  the  trouble  to  examine  all  the  different  sacks  or 
cells  in  the  nest,  we  find  in  them  eggs,  small,  middle- 
sized,  and  full-grown  grubs,  as  well  as  the  pupae  or  "rest- 
ing stage."  In  the  cells  where  there  are  eggs,  none  of 
the  pollen  paste  or  bee-bread  will  be  missing,  but  in 
those  where  there  are  grubs,  more  or  less  will  have  been 
eaten.  A  cellful  of  pollen  as  provided  by  the  parent 
is  just  enough  food  for  a  young  bee  to  eat  in  order  to 
become  full  grown.  So  when  all  has  been  eaten  the  grub 
simply  changes  to  the  pupa,  and  a  little  later  is  full- 
grown;  i.  e.,  it  becomes  a  bumble-bee  and  is  ready  to 
carry  pollen  and  honey,  or  to  work  in  the  nest,  along 
with    the    others.     Bumble-bees,    like    the    honey-bees, 


USEFUL  INSECTS  59 

have  queens,  workers,  and  drones  or  males;  but  there 
may  be  a  dozen  or  more  queens  in  a  single  nest  instead 
of  only  the  one.  The  queens  alone  live  over  winter, 
hence  all  bumble-bees  in  spring  appear  to  be  much 
larger  than  those  we  see  in  summer,  when  there  are 
workers  and  males  also.  Both  the  queens  and  workers 
gather  honey  and  pollen.  The  males  visit  flowers  to 
feed,  but  do  not  carry  honey  or  pollen  to  the  nest. 

There  are  a  large  number  of  other  kinds  of  wild  bees 
which  live  in  the  ground  or  in  the  stems  of  plants.  Most 
of  these  have  only  two  forms,  or  sexes,  the  male  and 
female.  Neither  do  they  store  honey;  nor  do  they  live 
in  nests  where  there  are  very  many  together.  Some  of 
them  are  quite  small  and  either  shiny  green  or  blue. 
Others  are  gayly  marked  with  yellow  and  white  dots  and 
bands.  Each  kind  seems  to  choose  some  particular 
flower  or  flowers  which  it  visits  in  preference  to  all  others 
to  feed  upon  the  honey  and  pollen. 

Cuckoo  Bees. — Some  bees  are  not  made  with  pollen 
baskets  on  their  hind  legs  or  on  the  under  side  of  their 
abdomens  like  those  which  do  store"  this  substance. 
Still  they  must  raise  their  young  in  some  way,  so  they 
do  it  by  laying  their  eggs  in  the  nests  of  those  bees 
which  can  carry  and  store  food.  These  bees  which  lay 
their  eggs  in  that  manner  are  called  "cuckoo  bees," 
because  of  their  imitating  the  European  cuckoo,  a  kind 
of  bird  that  steals  its  eggs  into  other  birds'  nests.  Our 
cowbird  does  the  same  thing  in  this  country. 

Wasps. —  There  are  a  great  many  kinds  of  wasps,  just 
as  there  are  of  bees;  and  like  the  latter,  they  live  in 
different  ways.     Some  live  in  colonies,  that  is,  they 


6o 


NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


gather  together  like  people  in  a  town  and  make  large 
nests.  Some  of  these  nest-making  wasps  we  call  "hor- 
nets," some  "yellow- jackets,"  and  others  "mud-daub- 
ers." The  hornets  and  yellow- jackets  make  paper 
nests.  All  of  these  wasps  catch  insects  and  other  small 
creatures  which  they  feed  to  their  young.  Some  kinds 
even  chew  the  food  before  giving  it 
to  the  young  grubs,  which  live  in  the 
cells  like  young  bees.  The  hornets 
and  yellow- jackets  often  catch  large 
numbers  of  biting  flies,  like  those 
that  worry  our  cattle  and  horses  as 
well  as  ourselves.  They  also  at  times 
gnaw  holes  in  ripe  fruit  and  in  this 
way  do  some  damage. 

The  Mud-Dauber  Wasp  generally 
fills  the  cells  of  its  nest  with  spiders 
and  then  lays  an  egg  upon  them  and 
seals  up  each  cell  as  it  is  finished. 
The  egg  soon  hatches  and  the  little 
grub  begins  feeding  on  the  spiders  which  were  furnished 
for  its  use.  When  the  spiders  are  all  eaten  it  is  full  grown, 
and  changes  to  the  pupa,  and  later  to  the  wasp  state. 

There  are  still  other  kinds  of  wasps  that  dig  holes  in 
the  ground.  These  are  called  "digger  wasps."  Some 
of  these  provide  caterpillars,  others  grasshoppers,  and 
still  others  cicadas,  etc.,  as  food  for  their  young.  The 
digger  wasps  are  solitary  instead  of  social,  i.  e.,  they  do 
not  live  together  in  large  numbers,  but  only  singly  or 
in  pairs.  Some  of  the  digger  wasps  have  very  long  and 
slender  bodies,  hence  the  term  "wasp-like"  body. 


Fig.  2  2.  Caterpillar 
killed  by  Ichneumon 
parasites. 


USEFUL  INSECTS 


Ichneumon  Flies. — Related  to  the  wasps  are  a  num- 
ber of  wasp-like  creatures  which  live  as  grubs  within  the 
bodies  of  caterpillars  and  other  insects.  These  belong  to 
several  families  known  as  ichneumon  flies.  Instead  of 
catching  the  insects  which  are  to  serve  as  food  for  their 
young,  these  flies  simply  sting  them  and  drop  in  one  or 
more  eggs  which  hatch 
into  grubs  that  begin 
feeding  and  growing 
within  the  body  of  the 
host.  When  full  grown 
these  grubs  either  spin 
up  within  the  host's 
body,  or  come  out  and 
seek  a  suitable  place 
t  o  un  dergo  their 
change,  so  that  later 
they  themselves  can 
sting  insects  for  the 
purpose  of  laying  their 
eggs.  There  are  hun- 
dreds and  hundreds  of 

kinds  of  these  ichneumon  flies;  and  they  vary  among 
themselves  a  great  deal  in  form,  as  well  as  in  size  and 
color.  Each  kind  is  more  or  less  confined  in  its  at- 
tack to  a  single,  or  to  but  two  or  three  hosts. 

Taking  all  kinds  of  insects  into  consideration  that 
suffer  from  their  attacks,  it  is  easily  seen  that  there 
must  be  an  army  of  these  ichneumon  flies  with  varying 
habits  in  order  to  meet  the  demands  placed  upon  them. 
Some  work  singly,  others  in  numbers;  some  attack  the 


Fig. 


Ichneumon  fly. 


62  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

larvae,  others  the  pupa,  and  still  others  the  mature  host. 
Even  the  eggs  of  insects  are  sought  out  and  made  to 
serve  as  breeding  places  for  many  kinds  of  these  ichneu- 
mon flies.  In  this  latter  case  the  attacking  insect  must  be 
very  small,  since  it  not  only  finds  enough  to  eat,  but  also 
the  room  to  grow  and  move  about,  shed  its  skin,  as  well 
as  spin  its  cocoon,  and  change  to  a  full-grown  insect — 
all  inside  the  egg  of  its  host.  One  case  is  known  of  an 
insect  of  this  kind  being  so  small  that  sixteen  individ- 
uals of  it  were  reared  from  a  single  butterfly  egg. 

Some  of  these  ichneumon  flies  are  known  to  attack 
other  ichneumons.  Such  little  insects  as  different 
kinds  of  plant  lice  also  suffer  greatly  from  them.  Even 
the  ichneumons  that  attack  other  ichneumons  are  in 
turn  attacked  by  other  kinds,  and  these  again  by  still 
others. 

Flesh  Flies,  or  Tachina  Flies. — By  keeping  our  eyes 
open  we  may  see  a  great  many  surprising  things  that  are 
happening  in  nature  about  us.  We  will  be  enabled  to 
learn  the  answers  to  many  puzzling  questions  for  our- 
selves. "What  good  are  flies?"  is  one  of  the  questions 
that  often  come  up  in  the  minds  of  persons  who  do  not 
vise  their  eyes.  If  such  persons  would  only  look,  they 
would  see  a  great  many  things  about  the  lives  of  differ- 
ent kinds  of  flies  that  are  useful.  When  an  animal 
dies,  or  a  piece  of  meat  decays,  large  numbers  of  flies 
gather  about  it.  In  a  short  time  they  lay  their  eggs 
upon  it,  or  "blow"  it  as  we  sometimes  say,  and  soon 
maggots  appear  in  large  numbers  and  eat  it  up.  Others 
of  these  flies  have  a  habit  of  laying  their  eggs  upon  the 
bodies    of   caterpillars,    grasshoppers,    and    plant    lice. 


USEFUL  INSECTS  63 

These  eggs  soon  produce  maggots  which  bore  into  the 
bodies  of  their  hosts;  and,  like  the  grubs  of  the  ichneu- 
mon flies  described  on  another  page,  cause  their  death. 
Many  of  our  grasshoppers  are  destroyed  each  year  by 
these  grubs  of  flies,  as  are  also  numerous  cut-worms 
and  other  caterpillars.  The  insects,  like  the  ichneumon 
and  flesh  flies,  which  live  in  the  bodies  of  and  kill  their 
hosts,  are  called  parasites. 


Fig.  24.     Dragon  flies. 

Dragon  Flies. — Sometimes  we  learn  to  call  things  by 
wrong  names.  This  is  simply  because  the  persons 
who  named  them  in  the  first  place  did  not  know  much 
about  their  ways  of  living.  So  when  certain  insects 
were  called  "snake  feeders"  or  "darning-needles," 
there  was  this  kind  of  a  mistake  made,  and  we  should  do 
all  we  can  to  correct  it.  We  know  that  these  insects  do 
not  feed  snakes,  just  as  well  as  we  know  that  they  will 
not  sew  up  our  ears.  But  they  do  spend  much  of  their 
time  flying  about  and  eating  all  kinds  of  mosquitoes, 
gnats,  and  small  flies.  So  destructive  and  fierce  are  they 
among  these  to  us  troublesome   insects   that  they  are 


64  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

the  veritable  dragons  of  the  air.  Hence  "dragon  flies" 
is  a  very  good  name  for  them.  Or,  if  we  prefer  to  call 
them  "mosquito  hawks,"  we  can  do  so,  for  they  spend 
most  of  their  time  chasing  and  catching  mosquitoes,  of 
which  they  are  very  fond.  A  few  years  ago  a  pri2e  was 
offered  to  the  person  who  would  write  the  best  essay 
on  ways  of  getting  rid  of  mosquitoes,  and  it  was  given 
to  the  person  who  wrote  about  the  habits  of  the  dragon 
flies — how  they  live  as  young  in  the  water,  where  they 
feed  on  "wrigglers"  and  other  small  animal  forms,  and 
later  on  mosquitoes,  etc. 

Robber  Flies. — Sometimes  when  we  are  walking  along 
a  road  or  path  in  spring,  fall,  or  summer,  we  suddenly 
become  aware  of  the  presence  of  some  fierce  insect; 
at  least  so  we  imagine  when  we  hear  the  loud  buzzing  of 
its  wings  as  it  darts  out  in  front  or  to  one  side  of  us. 
By  watching  closely  we  soon  see  him.  It  is  a  large, 
long-bodied,  strong-legged  fly,  with  its  face  well  cov- 
ered with  stiff  whiskers.  A  closer  inspection  shows 
him  to  be  a  regular  robber  or  pirate  in  appearance. 
Not  only  does  he  look  fierce,  but 
he  is  just  as  terrible  as  he  looks. 
Perhaps  at  the  very  moment  you 
are  watching  him  he  will  pounce 
upon  a  grasshopper  or  some  other 
insect  which  he  kills  and  robs  of 
its  blood.  The  names  "robber" 
or  "pirate"  are  both  good  ones  for 
these   fierce,  be  whiskered    flies,  of 

which   there   are    a    great    manv 
^^Fk;.  .5.  Robber  fly  and     ^^^^      r^^^^   j^.jj    ^    great  many 


USEFUL  INSECTS  65 

kinds  of  other  insects,  but  seem  to  like  the  grasshoppers 
best.  Some  of  these  robber  flies  are  as  large  as,  and 
even  look  very  much  like,  bumble-bees. 

Lace- Wing  Flies,  or  Aphis  Lions. — The  delicate, 
gauze-winged  insects  with  golden  eyes  which  will  be  called 
to  mind  by  the  picture  on  this  page  are  very  useful 
insects,  because  they  spend  their  lives  among  plant  lice, 
upon  which  they  feed.     Both  the  full-grown  and  young 


Fig.  26.    Lace-wing;  eggs,  larva,  and  fly. 

insects  occupy  their  time  doing  this  good  work.  In 
fact,  so  fierce  are  these  little  inoffensive-looking  insects 
that  nature  has  found  it  necessary  to  defend  them 
against  their  own  relatives.  When  their  eggs  are  laid 
they  are  placed  on  the  end  of  hair-like  stems,  so  that, 
when  they  hatch,  the  young  larvae  cannot  get  at  and  eat 
one  another.  Each  one  as  it  hatches  drops  off  its  perch 
and  must  wander  off  by  itself  in  search  of  plant  lice  to 
satisfy  its  keen  appetite.  Once  among  the  lice  its  food 
is  plentiful  and  there  is  less  danger  of  their  eating  one 
another.  These  "aphis  lions,"  or  lace- wings,  are  rela- 
tives of  the  ant-lions,  which  dig  in  the  sand  and  make 
little  funnel-shaped  pitfalls  to  draw  down  ants  and  other 
wandering  insects  on  which  they  feed. 


^  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

Tiger  Beetles  and  Ground  Beetles. — Not  only  do  we 
find  that  insects  are  attacked  by  other  kinds  which  dart 
upon  them  while  flying  in  the  air  or  feeding  on  plants,  or 
which  lie  in  wait  for  the  unsuspecting  victim,  but  we 
see  them  assailed  on  all  sides  by  still  others  which  steal 
cautiously  forth  in  search  of  them,  just  as  a  cat  does  for 
mice  or  a  fox  for  rabbits.  Among  these  latter  the  tiger 
beetles  and  their  relatives,  the  ground  beetles,  are  most 
important.  There  are  hundreds  of  kinds  of  these  car- 
nivorous beetles. 

The  tiger  beetles  are  rather  bright  colored,  long-legged, 
active  insects  that  live  on  the  ground.  They  may 
be  seen  running  swiftly  along  roads  or  paths  in  pursuit 
of  game,  or  basking  in  the  sunshine  lying  in  wait  for  some 
approaching  victim.  Their  grubs,  or  young,  also  feed 
on  other  insects,  which  are  caught  by  stealth.  They 
live  in  perpendicular  holes  at  the  tops  of  which  they  lie 
in  wait  till  some  ant  or  other  insect  steps  right  into  their 
open  mouths. 

The  ground  beetles  nearly  all  htmt  in  a  similar  fashion 
but  these  instead  of  doing  their  hunting  during  daytime 
prowl  mostly  after  nightfall.  Some  kinds  remain  on  or 
near  the  ground,  but  others  run  up  the  trunks  and  among 
the  branches  of  trees,  where  they  feed  on  caterpillars 
and  other  leaf-feeding  insects  of  various  kinds.  Some 
of  these  tree-climbing  kinds  are  beautifully  colored,  and 
are  called  caterpillar-hunters.  Most  ground  beetles 
are  provided  with  arrangements  for  producing  offensive 
odors.  A  few  can  even  discharge  this  substance  from 
the  tip  of  the  abdomen,  with  such  force  as  to  produce  a 
noise  like   shooting.     When   this  is   done   in   daylight 


USEFUL  INSECTS  ^^ 

"smoke"  is  seen.  The  last  described  are  called  bom- 
bardier beetles. 

Lady  Birds. — Besides  the  tiger  and  ground  beetles 
just  mentioned,  there  are  other  kinds  of  beetles  which 
spend  their  time   doing  good   by   destroying  harmful 
insects  or  their  eggs.    Quite  promi- 
nent among  these   latter  are  the 
small  red-and-black   spotted  lady 
birds,  or  lady  "bugs,"  as  they  are 
most  often  called.     These  eat  the 
eggs  of   such    harmful    species  as        Fig.  27.    Lady  bird, 
the    Colorado   potato  beetle,    flea 

beetles,  the  chinch-bug,  and  others.  They  also  eat  large 
numbers  of  plant  lice  of  different  kinds,  and  in  doing 
this  become  our  friends. 

Scavenger  Insects. — As  already  suggested,  insects 
can  be  useful  in  a  number  of  ways.  On  the  preceding 
pages  some  of  the  forms  have  been  described  which 
are  useful  as  destroyers  of  harmful  kinds.  It  is  also 
known  that  some  kinds  of  insects  either  feed  on  weeds 
or  on  dead  and  decaying  animals  and  plants,  which,  if 
allowed  to  remain  unmolested,  would  be  the  cause  of 
disease.  The  last  of  these  we  call  scavengers.  They 
may  be  either  flies  or  beetles.  Some  of  the  flies  belong- 
ing to  this  class  are  closely  related  to  those  already 
mentioned  as  destroyers  of  caterpillars  and  grasshoppers, 
but  others  are  not.  The  beetles  are  called  either 
"burying  beetles"  or  "dtmg  beetles,"  but  these  two 
names  do  not  include  all  of  the  forms  that  serve  as 
scavengers.  If  a  mouse,  snake,  or  other  small  animal 
dies  and  is  left  lying  on  the  ground  during  warm  weather 


68 


NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


*  the  odor  soon  attracts  large 

^^  and  small  beetles  of  several 
1^^  kinds,  which  at  once  begin 
^K  digging  underneath  it  so  as  to 
^^  let  the  animal  settle  into  the 
earth.  This  digging  by  the 
insects  continues  until  the 
dead  animal  is  buried  or  cov- 
ered with  dirt.  Before  leav- 
ing it  the  beetles  lay  their  eggs 
on  or  near  the  body,  so  that 
their  young  when  hatched 
will  be  provided  with  food. 

Not  only  dead  and  decay- 
ing animals  and  plants  are 
thus  used  by  some  insects 
for  food  for  themselves  and 
their  young,  but  even  the 
dung  or  droppings  of  most 
larger  animals  is  likewise  made  use  of  by  them  for  a 
similar  purpose.  The  "tumble-bug"  selects  a  portion 
of  such  material,  lays  an  egg  in  it,  and  then  rolls  it  over 
and  over  along  the  ground,  till  it  has  become  covered 
with  a  hard  layer  of  earth.  The  pellet  is  then  buried 
and  left,  the  parent  beetle  knowing  that  the  young  grub 
will  be  well  supplied  with  food  to  last  till  it  is  fully  grown 
and  ready  to  change  to  the  beetle  state.  Others  of  these 
beetles  simply  bury  some  material  without  at  first  rolling 
it  about;  and  still  others  do  not  even  bury  it,  but  are 
satisfied  with  simply  laying  their  eggs  upon  or  within  it. 
Some  of  these  scavenger  beetles  are  beautifully  colored, 


Fig.  28.     Clover  root  beetle. 


USEFUL  INSECTS  69 

and  are  also  adorned  with  horns  and  other  queer  orna- 
ments. 

Other  insects,  like  the  silk- worm,  cochineal,  and  lac 
or  shellac  making  kinds,  occur  in  some  countries.  A 
number  of  different  kinds  of  insects  are  also  eaten  by 
the  wild  and  partly  civilized  peoples  who  live  in  various 
countries.  Some  of  these  edible  insects  are  such  as 
grasshoppers  or  locusts,  meal-worms,  water  boatmen, 
and  various  borers  taken  from  decaying  logs.  Insects 
may  also  be  considered  valuable  when  used  for  fish-bait 
or  when  fed  to  fowls.  In  fact,  whenever  a  direct  or  even 
an  indirect  use  of  them  is  made  whereby  man  may  be 
profited  in  any  way,  they  may  be  said  to  be  of  some 
benefit  to  him. 


1.  Why  should  the  farmer  know  something  aoout  insects? 

2.  What  should  he  know?     Why? 

3.  How    does    an    insect    breathe?     Where    are    its    ears? 
Where  is  its  skeleton?     How  is  its  blood  different  from  yours? 

4.  In  what  ways  do  insects  pass  the  winter? 

5.  Why  do  insects  shed  their  skins? 

6.  Upon  what  insects  is  man  more  or  less  dependent? 

7.  What  kinds  of  bees  are  found  in  a  hive?     Give  the  life 
history  of  each. 

8.  What  is  "bee-bread"  ?     Find  the  pollen  basket  on  a  bum- 
ble-bee. 

9.  How  do  bumble-bees  differ  from  honey-bees? 

10.  What  are  "cuckoo"  bees? 

1 1 .  Open  the  mud  nest  of  a  dauber  wasp  and  examine  the 
young  and  their  food. 

12.  "What  good  are  flies?" 

13.  By  means  of  a  garden  rake  drag  the  trash  from  a  shallow 
pond  and  bring  the  "nymphs"  of  the  dragon-fly  to  class. 

14.  Why  do  aphis  lions  lay  their  eggs  at  the  end  of  hair-like 
stems  ? 

15.  In  what  way  do  scavengers  aid  man? 

16.  Make  a  list  of  useful  insects,  and  state  in  what  way  each 
benefits  the  farmer. 


CHAPTER  VII 


HARMFUL  INSECTS 

Locusts,  or  Short-Horned  Grasshoppers. —  Perhaps 
the  most  important  insects  that  do  damage  here  in  the 
West  year  after  year  are  the  ones  we  call  the  "short- 
horned"  grasshoppers.  A  better  name  for  them  is 
locusts;  but  if  we  insist  on  calling  them  by  the  name 
"grasshoppers,"  we  should  add  to  it  "short-homed," 
so  that  the  bug-man  will  also  know  what  kind  of  jump- 
ing insects  we  are  talking  about. 

Not  all  of  the  short-horned  grasshoppers  are  to  be 
dreaded.  Still,  every  one  of  these  insects  feeds 
on  plants,  and  nearly  all  such  food-plants  are  more  o" 
less  useful  to  us  in  one  way  or  another.  In  this  state 
there  are  nearly  or  quite  one  hundred  and  eighty  different 

kinds.  Some  of  these 
are  quite  small,  others 
are  quite  large;  some 
have  long  wings  which 
they  use  in  flying  from 
one  place  to  another,  but 
others  are  almost  or  en- 
tirely without  these  helps 
for  getting  about.  They 
are  of  nearly  all  colors 
and  live  in  almost  every 
part  of  the  country. 


Fig.  2g.    Rocky  Mountain  locust. 


70 


HARMFUL  INSECTS  7 1 

Nearly  all  the  different  kinds  of  grasshoppers  of  this 
family  lay  their  eggs  in  the  same  way,  so  that  a  single 
account  will  do  for  all.  Female  locusts  are  so  made 
that  they  can  dig  holes  in  the  ground  with  the  tip  of 
their  abdomen.  When  the  hole  is  of  the  right  depth  it 
is  lined  with  a  froth-like  substance,  and  the  eggs  are 
laid  as  shown  in  the  picture.  Different  kinds  lay  differ- 
ent numbers  of  eggs.  Some  deposit  only  about  two  doz;en, 
while  others  lay  more  than  one  hundred  in  a  single  pod. 
After  the  eggs  have  been  laid,  the  rest  of  the  hole  is  filled 
with  the  same  frothy  matter  mentioned  above.  This 
dries  and  leaves  an  easy  way  for  the  young  hoppers  to 
reach  the  surface  when  they  hatch.  These  insects  lay 
their  eggs  in  varied  places.  Some  like  dry,  sandy,  or 
gravelly  ground ;  others  soft,  loose  earth  in  low  places; 
and  still  others  choose  the  soil  about  the  tangled  roots 
of  plants,  or  hard-trampled  paths  and  roadsides  for  the 
purpose.  They  lay  their  eggs  at  different  times,  but 
mostly  during  late  summer  or  in  the  early  fall  of  the  year. 
A  few  kinds  also  lay  them  in  the  spring.  This  differ- 
ence in  egg-laying  makes  them  hatch  at  different 
seasons.  The  spring-laid  eggs  generally  hatch  in  late 
summer  or  fall.  So  when  we  see  grasshoppers  on  warm 
days  in  winter  and  early  spring  we  need  not  feel  alarmed. 
These  are  some  of  the  kinds  that  always  live  over  win- 
ter as  young  or  full-grown  hoppers  instead  of  in  the 
egg  state.  There  are  only  a  few  of  these  kinds,  and 
they  hardly  ever  do  much  harm.  It  may  seem  that 
they  are  intended  for  winter  and  early  spring  birds,  as 
well  as  for  those  of  us  who  like  to  study  about  insects. 

In  growing,  these  insects  shed  their  skin  four  or  five 


OF  THE     ^ 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 

'FORMIC 


72 


NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


times.  The  different  sizes 
are  shown  in  the  picture. 
The  time  required  for  a 
grasshopper  to  grow  up  is 
from  six  weeks  to  nearly 
or  quite  two  months.  Each 
one  of  these  insects  eats  fully 
as  much  food  in  a  day  as  its 
own  weight,  and  often  a  great 
deal  more.  So  when  there 
are  a  great  many  in  one  place 
they  do  much  damage. 

Grasshoppers,  like  all  other 
kinds  of  insects,  are  more  or 
less  affected  by  the  weather 
and  by  different  kinds  of 
enemies.  This  is  why  we  see 
them  more  plentiful  some 
years  than  others.  But  we 
cannot  tell  you  here  about 
all  of  the  natural  enemies, 
or  even  about  how  cold  and 
heat,  or  wet  and  dry,  is  apt 
to  affect  their  hatching  and 
growth  and  make  them  plentiful  or  scarce. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  a  number  of  different  kinds 
of  useful  insects  were  said  to  destroy  grasshoppers  and 
their  relatives.  In  addition  to  what  these  useful  insects 
do  towards  reducing  their  numbers,  many  die  from 
sickness ;  still  others  are  killed  off  year  by  year  by  animals 
of  the  prairie,  woods,  and  farm.     The  study  of  how  one 


PlO.  30.     Rocky  Mountain 
locust  moulting. 


HARMFUL  INSECTS 


73 


kind  of  life  depends  upon  another  is  very  interesting 
as.  well  as  useful  to  the  farmer,  and  he  shoujd  take  it 
up  if  he  would  make  the  most  of  his  life  and  opportu- 
nities. 

Grasshopper  Diseases,  like  the  sicknesses  of  other  ani- 
mals, often  cause  the  death  of  thousands  of  these  insects; 
but  we  have  not  yet  been  able  to  spread  these  diseases 
artificially  so  as  to  make  them  of  much  use  in  killing  the 
'hoppers.  We  must  destroy  their  eggs  in  fall,  during 
winter,  or  early  spring,  by  disking  or  harrowing  the 
ground.  We  must  catch  the  young  and  full-grown 
insects  with  'hopper  dozers  and  other  machines,  or  else 
we  must  by  some  other  means  prevent  them  from 
destroying  our  cultivated  plants  and  grasses  that  grow 
wild  upon  the  prairies. 

Crickets,  Katydids,  and  Other  Relatives  of  Locusts. 
— These  insects,  like  the  short-horned  grasshoppers  de- 
scribed above,  are  also  plant-eaters.  But  they  hardly 
ever  become  so  numerous  as  to  destroy  whole  fields  of 
grain  or  the  grasses  of  the  prairies  and  meadows.  In 
fact,  they  seem  to  be  more  or  less  necessary  to  com- 
plete our  idea  of  a  country  picture.  Their  thrilling 
music  seems  to  be  ever  present  during  the  warm  days 


Fig.  31.     Angular-winged  katydid. 


74 


NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


and  delightful  evenings  of  late  summer  and  early  fall. 
This  insect  music  is  one  of  the  most  characteristic  fea- 
tures of  country  life,  and  we  would  miss  it  greatly  were 
all  these  insects  to  die  and  no  longer  chirrup  their  songs 
of  love.  They  are  the  chief  musicians  of  the  insect 
world  and  they  appeal  to  most  of  us  who  have  been 
endowed  with  sentimental  natures,  much  as  do  birds. 

As  mentioned  on  a  former 
page,  in  these  insects  we  find 
fully  developed  ears,  which 
are  located  on  the  front  legs 
just  below  the  knee,  or  elbow. 
Their  feelers,  or  "horns," 
are  nearly  or  quite  as  long 
as  their  bodies,  hence  they 
may  be  called  "long-homed" 
to  separate  them  from  the 
* '  short-horned ' '  grasshoppers 
referred  to  above.  Then,  too, 
the  females  are  furnished  with 
a  sword-like  egg-layer.  These 
may  be  separated  into  two 
and  the  katydids  and  katy- 
did-like insects.  These  musical  insects  also  have 
their  natural  enemies  among  the  useful  kinds  already 
described. 

Bugs  and  their  Relatives. — When  we  tried  to  tell  you 
about  insects  in  general  as  differing  from  all  other  animal 
forms,  you  will  remember  it  was  said  that  certain  kinds 
had  their  mouths  made  in  the  form  of  a  jointed  beak  or 
tube.     These  insects  suck  blood  and  sap.     Some  of  them 


Fig.  32.  Spined  soldier- 
buK.  Upper  figures,  e^g  and 
immature.  Lf)wer  figurts, 
beak  and  mature. 

long-horned     'hoppers 
families — the    crickets, 


/  HARMFUL  INSECTS  75 

are  called  bugs,  some  cicadas,  others  leaf  and  tree  hop- 
pers, and  still  others  lice  and  plant  lice. 

Most  of  the  members  of  this  great  army  of  insects 
with  sucking  mouths  belong  to  the  harmful  insects, 
because  we  find  them  living  either  as  enemies  to  man  or 
to  the  domestic  animals  which  he  has  tamed ;  or  else  they 
are  harmful  to  the  plants  which  we  use.  Such  common 
kinds  like  lice  and  bed-bugs  we  all  know  about.  We  also 
know  about  the  squash-bug  and  chinch-bug,  both  of 
which  are  very  troublesome.  The  squash-bug  sucks 
the  juices  from  squash,  pumpkin,  cucumber,  and  melon 
vines;  and  the  chinch-bug  injures  wheat,  barley,  rye, 
oats,  millet,  and  corn.  All  of  these,  and  a  lot  of  others, 
have  a  peculiar  strong  odor.  So  we  often  call  them 
*'  stink  bugs,  "  They  are  the  true  bugs  and  we  should  be 
careful  about  calling  other  insects  by  so  bad  a  name. 
Even  these  jointed-beaked  insects  are  not  all  called 
"bugs,"  as  stated  above. 

In  summer  we  often  hear  insects  singing  in  the  trees, 
which  seem  to  make  noise  enough  to  be  as  large  as  a  cat 
or  a  dog,  but  which  are  really  no  larger  than  the  outer 
joint  of  one  of  our  fingers.  These  are  cicadas,  or  as  they 
are  sometimes  wrongly  called,  "locusts."  One  kind 
takes  seventeen  years  to  become  full  grown,  and  then 
appears  in  large  numbers  or  swarms.  For  sixteen  years 
it  lives  under  the  ground  sucking  the  sap  from  roots 
and  growing  slowly,  but  the  seventeenth  year  it  comes 
to  the  top  of  the  ground,  gets  wings,  lays  its  eggs,  and 
dies.  These  eggs,  which  are  placed  in  the  twigs  of  trees 
by  the  female  insect,  hatch  and  the  young  cicadas  drop 
to  the  ground  and  dig  down  to  live  there  like  their  par- 


76 


NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULl^URE 


ents   did   for  sixteen  years.      These  cicadas  make  all 
their  noise  with  their  ears.     Queer  insects,  indeed! 

Tree-hoppers  and  Leaf -hoppers. — They  are  so-called, 
because  they  live  on  grass,  leaves,  and  trees,  and  be- 
cause of  their  jumping  habits.  Like  their  relatives, 
the   cicadas    and  bugs,  they  live    on   sap.      Some   of 


Pio.  33.    B|x>wnie  bugs. 


them  are  very  queer-looking  creatures  indeed.  If  we 
believed  that  there  were  such  creatures  as  fairies  and 
brownies  we  would  surely  say  that  they  were  these  in- 
sects, so  bedecked  are  they  with  queer  haunches  on 
their  backs  and  shoulders ;  and  with  their  bulging  eyes, 
which  suggest  the  productions  of  Palmer  Cox.  Some 
of  them  really  have  been  called  "brownie  bugs,"  be- 
cause of  their  likeness  to  the  brownies. 

There  are  hundreds  of  these  jumping  insects,  and  each 
kind  seems  to  be  an  enemy  of  some  particular  plant. 


HARMFUL  INSECTS  J  J 

Throughout  the  summer,  nearly  every  blade  of  grass  on 
the  prairies,  every  weed  in  the  field,  or  herb  in  the  forest, 
to  say  nothing  of  cultivated  plants,  has  one  or  more  of 
these  insects  perched  upon  it  busily  engaged  in  sucking 
the  sap.  No  wonder  that  plants  suffer  and  are  so  often 
killed,  when  such  a  host  of  insects  is  continually  at  work 
upon  them.  But  these,  like  other  harmful  insects,  all 
have  their  own  enemies  and  diseases  to  keep  them  in 
check.  Sometimes,  however,  we  must  fight  them  our- 
selves in  order  to  prevent  their  doing  too  much  damage 
to  our  crops.  The  'hopper  doz;er  can  then  be  used,  or 
we  can  spray  the  plants  with  kerosene  emulsion,  which  is 
made  as  described  in  the  chapter  on  remedies. 

Plant  Lice. —  Plants,  like  animals,  are  often  bothered 
by  lice.  Sometimes  they  are  even  killed  by  them,  if 
there  is  no  remedy  at  hand.  The  lice  of  plants  are  either 
shell-like  and  stick  very  close  to  the  twigs  or  leaves ;  or 
they  are  active  and  move  about  from  place  to  place  like 
many  other  insects.  The  first  kind  are  called  "bark 
lice"  or  "scale  insects";  and  the  last  "aphids"  or 
simply  "plant  lice." 

Scale  insects,  when  full  grown,  do  not  look  at  all  like 
other  insects;  but  when  they  are  first  hatched  they 
resemble  a  "sow-bug"  and  are  quite  active  and  run 
about  on  the  plants  which  they  infest.  After  a  little 
while  they  settle  down  upon  the  bark  or  surface  of  a 
leaf,  insert  their  beaks,  and  begin  sucking  sap.  They 
then  commence  to  form  a  shell  or  covering  of  wax  over 
their  bodies  and  remain  stationary  the  remainder  of 
their  lives.  Different  kinds  make  scales  or  shells  of 
different  shape?      TVr  iriale  insects,  when  full  grown, 


78 


NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


change  form,  and  leave  the  scales  as  winged  creatures, 
but  the  females  do  not.  The  latter  simply  remain 
where  they  are,  lay  eggs  under  the  shells,  and  die.  At 
the  right  time  these  eggs  hatch  and  the  young  run  about 
over  the  plant  until  they  settle  down  just  as  their  par- 


Fio.  ^4.     Peach  Scale,     a.  Natural  size;   b.  Female;    c    Male,  enlarged. 


ents  did  before  them.  A  very  few  kinds  produce  living 
yoimg  instead  of  laying  eggs.  The  much-talked-of  San 
Jose  scale  is  of  this  latter  kind.  The  wax  from  gome  kinds 
of  these  insects  is  used  for  making  varnish.  Mealy  bugs 
and  the  cochineal  insect  are  relatives  of  the  scale  insects. 
The  aphids,  green  flies,  or  true  plant-lice,  form  a  very 
interesting  family  of  insects.  So  if  a  little  more  time  is 
spent  in  telling  about  them  than  was  given  to  other 
forms  you  will,  no  doubt,  pardon  the  writer.     Besides 


HARMFUL  INSECTS 


79 


being  very  interesting  on  account  of  the  way  in  which 
they  live  and  raise  their  young,  very  many  kinds  are 
among  our  most  harmful  insects.  They  are  also  among  the 
most  rapid  multipliers  in  the  insect  world.  A  few  kinds 
feed  on  several  plants,  but  most  of  them  attack  only  one 
species  upon  which  they  continue  to  live  till  they  die. 


Cottonwood  gall  louse. 


While  feeding  they  discharge  a  sweet  substance  from 
two  tubes  which  grow  on  their  backs  near  the  sides  of 
their  abdomen.  This  fluid  is  called  "honey  dew,"  and 
often  attracts  a  great  many  other  insects,  like  bees, 
wasps,  and  ants  which  come  to  lap  it  up.  Ants  in  par- 
ticular are  fond  of  this  honey  dew  and  often  take  care  of 
the  plant  lice  as  we  would  of  cows  just  to  obtain  this 
honey  dew  when  they  want  it.  In  fact,  plant  lice  of 
this  sort  are  very  often  called  ant's  cows.  Perhaps,  if 
there  is  room  for  it  in  this  little  book,  more  will  be  told 
about  ants  and  their  cows. 


80  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

How  They  Multiply. —  Plant  lice  increase  by  laying 
eggs,  as  well  as  by  what  is  called  "budding."  A  true 
female  louse  lays  eggs  in  the  fall  on  the  plant  where  its 
young  must  feed.  This  egg  hatches  into  another  kind 
of  mother  louse  the  next  spring.  When  full  grown, 
instead  of  laying  eggs,  she  produces  little  lice — about 
twenty-five  a  day  for  two  weeks  or  more.  In  about  a 
week  these  little  lice  are  grown  up,  when  they,  too,  give 
birth  to  other  little  lice,  and  these  in  turn  become 
mothers,  and  so  on  all  through  the  spring,  summer,  and 
fall,  till  cold  weather  indicates  that  it  is  time  for  eggs  to 
be  laid  for  taking  the  lice  through  the  winter.  In  this 
way  we  can  have  countless  millions  of  lice  produced  in 
one  season  from  a  single  egg. 

Some  of  these  lice  live  on  the  surface  of  the  plants 
injured,  either  upon  the  upper  or  lower  side  of  the  leaves, 
or  upon  the  stem  itself.  Others  cause  the  leaves  to  curl 
or  twist  about,  so  as  to  form  a  protection  for  them. 
Still  others  cause  the  plant  to  form  peculiar  hollow 
growths,  within  which  they  feed,  quite  well  protected 
from  storms  and  certain  enemies.  Other  kinds  even 
feed  on  the  roots  of  plants  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  Some  change  from  one  plant  to  another,  or 
from  above  ground  to  below  and  back  again  as  the  sea- 
sons change. 

These  insects  are  the  most  rapid  multipliers  among 
insects.  They  also  have  many  enemies,  as  you  will 
remember  from  having  read  the  chapter  on  useful 
insects.  Sometimes  even  all  of  these  enemies,  when 
combined,  are  unable  to  keep  their  numbers  small 
enough  to  prevent  their  doing  harm.     At  such  times 


HARMFUL  INSl:CTS  8 1 

j 
we   must   spray   the    plants   with   soap-suds,   kerosene 
emulsion,  whale-oil  soap,  and  other  remedies  which  are 
used  for  various  soft-bodied  insects. 

Biting  Lice. — Besides  the  lice  that  suck  the  blood 
there  are  a  lot  of  different  kinds  of  these  insects  which 
feed  on  hair,  feathers,  and  scales  of  the  skins  of  the 
animals  upon  which  they  live.  They  are  called  "biting 
lice,"  to  tell  them  from  the  "sucking  lice."  Most 
of  these  biting  lice  live  on  birds,  but  a  few  kinds,  also, 
live  on  animals  with  fur  or  hair. 

Most  wild  birds  know  how  to  kill  these  lice,  so 
they  never  become  numerous  enough  to  do  much 
harm.  Even  our  tame  birds,  like  chickens,  know  that 
by  dusting  themselves  in  ashes  and  other  dry,  powdery 
substances  they  can  rid  themselves  of  their  lice.  Some- 
times sitting  hens  and  little  chickens  become  covered 
with  lice  and  must  then  be  greased  in  order  to  kill  these 
vermin.  The  grease  chokes  or  stops  up  the  breathing 
holes  at  the  side  of  their  bodies. 

Beetles. — The  insects  which  we  call  beetles  are  very 
numerous  and  differ  a  great  deal  among  themselves  in 
size,  shape,  habits,  and  the  places  where  they  may  be 
found.  Of  course,  as  you  already  know,  many  of  them 
are  useful ;  but  others  are  harmful  because  they  destroy 
trees  and  other  plants  on  or  inside  of  the  leaves,  stems, 
and  roots  upon  which  they  feed.  Some  kinds  come 
into  our  houses  and  other  buildings,  where  they  attack 
and  injure  carpets,  clothing,  and  even  articles  of  food. 
In  our  granaries  they  attack  stored  grain,  besides  de- 
stroying flour  and  meal  in  mills. 

Beetles  differ  from  other  insects  in  having  their  front 


82 


NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


wings  hard  and  bony  so  they  can  be  used  to  protect 
their  soft  bodies  and  delicate  hind  wings,  which  are  made 
to  fly  with.  Their  young  are  worm-like,  and  are  called 
by  such  names  as  grubs,  wire- worms,  grub-worms, 
round-headed    borers,    flat-headed    borers,    and    glow- 


FiG.  ,?6.     June-beetle  -   stages. 


worms,  according  as  they  are  the  larvae  of  certain  kinds 
or  families  of  beetles. 

Perhaps  the  commonest  beetles  that  do  harm  on  the 
farm  are  those  we  call  "June-bugs  "  or  May-beetles. 

These  are  so  well  known  that  the  picture  alone  will 
show  what  kind  is  meant.  Of  course  town-folks  and 
girls  will  have  to  be  told  that  the  grub- worm  5  are  their 
young,  and  that  they  live  in  the  ground  two  or  three 
years  before  they  are  full  grown.  These  grubs  dig  their 
way  about  in  the  earth,  where  they  eat  the  roots  of  grasses, 
clover,  alfalfa,  and  a  number  of  other  plants.  When 
ready  to  change  to  the  pupa  stage  they  make  a  nice 
little  oval-shaped  room  in  which  this  takes  place;  and 


HARMFUL  INSECTS  83 

later,  in  which  the  beetle  waits  till  it  has  become  hardened 
enough  to  dig  its  way  through  the  earth  to  the  top  of 
the  ground.  In  spring,  about  corn-planting  time,  these 
beetles  come  out  during  warm  evenings  and  fly  around 
making  their  buzzing  noise.  Sometimes  hundreds,  or 
even  thousands,  of  them  gather  on  our  fruit  and  shade 
trees;  and  when  they  do  so,  much  harm  is  done  because 
they  eat  the  blossoms,  leaves,  and  fruit.  In  a  few 
weeks  their  eggs  are  laid  and  the  old  beetles  die  or  are 
eaten  by  various  kinds  of  toads,  lizards,  mice,  and  other 
small  animals.  One  of  the  digger  wasps,  spoken  of  on 
another  page,  also  kills  many  of  these  insects;  but  it 
generally  attacks  the  grubs,  instead  of  the  beetles. 
Some  of  the  relatives  of  the  June-beetles,  which  are 
found  in  warm  countries,  are  regular  giants — being  five 
or  six  inches  long.  Others  of  their  relatives  are  the 
dung-beetles,  like  the  tumble-bugs  mentioned  at  another 
place  in  this  book,  and  flower-beetles,  of  both  of  which 
there  are  many  kinds. 

Wire- Worm  Beetles. — We  sometimes  find  smooth, 
hard,  yellowish- brown,  slender  worms  among  the  roots 
of  grasses  and  clover.  These  are  called  "wire-worms," 
and  are  the  young  of  click-beetles  or  snapping  beetles. 
Like  the  grub- worm,  these  wire- worms  often  do  much 
damage  to  growing  plants  by  gnawing  off  their  roots. 
On  account  of  their  living  in  the  ground  it  is  not 
so  very  easy  to  destroy  them.  About  the  only  thing 
that  can  be  done  is  to  encourage  their  natural  enemies, 
such  as  have  already  been  mentioned  or  will  be  later. 
One  of  these  wire-worms  here  in  Nebraska  is  furnished 
with  an  arrangement  for  making  lights  like  a  fire-fly. 


84 


NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


It  is  called  a  glow-worm.  In  the  West  Indies,  and 
Central  and  South  America,  some  of  the  larger 
"click"  beetles  are  also  fitted  with  very  strong  and 
bright  lanterns  for  attracting 
their  mates.  People  some- 
times use  these  beetles  for 
scarf-pins  when  going  to  a  party 
at  night.  They  can  also  be 
used  instead  of  candles  to  read 
by. 

Leaf-Beetles. — Anybody  who 
has  learned  to  know  the  Colo- 
rado potato  beetle  can  tell  what 
leaf -beetles  are  like.  These  form 
a  very  large  family  of  medium 
or  small  sized,  bright -colored 
beetles,  which  feed  on  the 
leaves  of  different  plants.  Even  their  grubs  can  usually 
be  found  on  the  same  plant  with  the  parents.  To  this 
family  belong  such  rascals  as  the  cucumber-beetles,  the 
corn-root  worm,  the  willow  and  the  cotton  wood  beetles, 
the  sweet-potato-beetles,  flea-beetles,  and  others.  Feed- 
ing as  they  do  on  many  of  our  wild  plants,  it  happens 
that  every  once  in  a  while  we  learn  of  a  new  kind  chang- 
ing to  one  of  the  cultivated  plants.  When  this  is  done 
we  have  one  more  insect  enemy  to  fight. 

Some  of  these  leaf-beetles  are  protected  from  their 
enemies  by  being  furnished  with  arrangements  for  mak- 
ing strong  odors,  or  by  having  their  bodies  covered  with 
distasteful  substances.  Others  have  the  habit  of  living 
in  little  cases  which  the  grubs  make  for  themselves,  and 


Wire -worm  and 
'click"  beetle. 


HARMFUL  INSECTS  85 

still  others  drop  to  the  ground  when  disturbed,  where 
they  lie  as  if  dead.  Many  of  these  leaf-beetles  live  over 
winter  hidden  away  under  old  rubbish,  cow-chips,  stones, 
and  pieces  of  wood,  where  we  may  find  them  on  any 
pleasant  day  if  we  only  take  the  pains  to  look.  Early 
in  the   spring  they  leave   these   winter    quarters,  and 


Fir,.  38.     Leaf-beetles  and  larva. 

fly  to  the  plants  on  which  their  young  are  to  feed. 
There  are  two  or  three  broods  or  sets  of  young  of  many 
forms  during  the  spring,  summer,  and  fall.  Many  of 
the  leaf-beetles  are  eaten  by  their  enemies  while  they 
are  still  in  the  egg  state.  The  lady-birds,  spoken  of  on 
another  page,  do  much  of  this  good  work. 

Boring  Beetles. —  Every  boy  goes  into  the  woods 
sometime  during  the  year;  or  if  he  does  not,  he  certainly 
must  chop  wood.  In  either  case  he  soon  learns  that  the 
trunk,  branches,  and  limbs  of  trees  are  bored  into  by 
insects.  Sometimes  he  even  finds  them  in  their  burrows. 
Of  course  he  has  learned  for  himself  that  the  worms  of 
different  shapes  and  sizes  are  the  young  of  beetles — 
short-homed  or  long-homed.  But  the  girls  who  stay 
at  home  and  can't  chop  wood  must  be  told  about  them 
here. 

These  wood-boring  insects  do  a  great  deal  of  harm  by 


86 


xNEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


making  holes  so  as  to  cut  off  the  flow  of  sap.  Some- 
times they  even  weaken  trees  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
allow  the  wind  to  break  them  off.  The  beetles  that  lay 
the  eggs  from  which  these  borers  hatch,  mostly  belong 
to  two  families,  which  are  called  the  "long-homed"  and 


Fig.  39.     Hackberry  borer. 


the  "short-homed"  boring  beetles.  Their  young  are 
called  "round-headed"  and  "flat-headed"  borers,  the 
round-headed  being  the  young  of  the  long-homed 
beetles,  and  the  flat-headed  those  of  the  short-horned. 
Even  if  these  insects  are  hidden  away  on  the  inside  of 
trees  they  are  not  quite  safe  from  enemies.  So  nicely 
has  everything  been  planned  in  this  world  that  no  kind 
of  animal  can  escape  from  all  others.  A  number  of 
ichneumon  flies  and  other  insects  make  it  their  .special 


HARMFUL  INSECTS 


87 


business  to  hunt  out  and  destroy  them.  Then,  too,  as 
the  boys  will  tell  you,  certain  kinds  of  our  birds  are  also 
made  especially  for  the  same  kind  of  work.  By  looking 
over  what  is  said  about  birds  in  this  little  book,  you  will 


Fig.  40.      Bark-boring  beetle  and  injury, 


learn  which  ones  these  are,  and  how  they  are  fitted  for 
the  work  they  have  to  do. 

Sometimes  a  slender  wire  or  the  point  of  a  pen-knife 
in  the  hand  of  a  man  or  boy,  will  save  a  tree  when  we 
know  that  a  borer  is  at  work  in  its  trunk.  By  the  time 
one  of  the  borer's  natural  enemies  gets  around  to  the 
injured  tree  it  might  be  too  late. 


88  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

Bark-Beetles. — In  addition  to  the  two  kinds  of 
boring  beetles  just  mentioned,  there  are  still  others; 
but  those  known  as  "bark-beetles"  are  the  most  im- 
portant. These,  as  the  name  indicates,  are  to  be  found 
either  in  the  bark  or  between  it  and  the  wood.  By 
the  united  work  of  many  of  these  beetles  a  tree  is  soon 
girdled  and  killed.  Most  of  these  bark-beetles  are  rather 
small,  but  their  numbers  make  up  for  their  small  size: 
They  generally  attack  and  hurt  sickly  trees,  or  those 
that  have  been  already  harmed  by  leaf -eaters  or  other 
borers. 

Aside  from  their  natural  enemies  we  can  do  much 
towards  keeping  these  bark-beetles  in  check  by  cutting 
off  the  infested  limbs  and  burning  them  along  with  the 
beetles  and  their  grubs.  The  bark-beetles  that  injure 
fruit-trees  should  be  looked  after  first  because  they  do 
the  most  harm  and  are  not  so  often  destroyed  by  birds 
which  live  in  the  woods  and  farther  away  from  oiir 
homes. 

Snout  Beetles. — We  often  see  beetles  of  different 
shapes,  sizes,  and  colors,  which  have  the  front  part  of 
their  heads  drawn  out  so  as  to  form  snouts,  or  beaks. 
These  are  called  "bill  bugs, "  or  "  snout  beetles.  "  Nearly 
all  of  them  are  harmful  in  one  way  or  another,  because 
they  attack  and  eat  plants  or  their  seeds  and  fruits. 
The  grubs  of  these  insects  generally  live  inside  of  some 
part  of  the  plants  attacked.  A  good  example  of  this 
kind  of  beetle  is  known  as  the  plum-gouger,  because  it 
gouges  holes  and  lays  its  eggs  in  that  fruit.  Other  kinds 
are  enemies  of  such  fruits  as  the  pear,  apple,  peach,  and 
grape,  while  nearly  all  the  varieties  of  nuts  have  each 


HARMFUL  INSECTS 


89 


Fig.  41.     Plum  gouger. 


one  or  more  kinds  of 
these  insects  which  in- 
jure them.  Some  of  the 
nut  "weevils,"  for  such 
is  the  name  by  which 
they  are  known,  have 
snouts  nearly  or  quite 
as  long  as  their  bodies. 
The  reason  for-  their 
having  this  very  long 
snout  is  that  they  use 
their  bills  for  making 
holes  clear  through  the 
husk  as  well  as  the  shell 
of  the  nut,  so  that  their 
eggs  can  be  placed  where  the  grubs  will  live. 

Some  of  our  weevils,  or  snout  beetles,  injure  corn, 
sugar-cane,  and  even  the  smaller  grains  and  grasses. 
Hundreds  of  smaller  kinds  live  in  the  stems  or  else  in 
the  flower-heads  and  seed-pods  of  certain  plants.  One 
kind  lives  in  the  stems  of  the  cockle-bur,  and  sometimes 
kills  it.  But  we  do  not  mind  this,  for  we  ourselves  try 
to  destroy  the  cockle-burs. 

Stored  Grain  Insects. — Many  of  the  smaller  weevils 
are  so  fond  of  different  kinds  of  seeds  that  they  often 
go  to  our  granaries  where  they  attack  and  eat  the  stored 
grain.  In  fact,  some  kinds  are  only  found  in  stored 
grain  and  other  food  substances  made  of  grains  and  seeds 
like  peas,  beans,  and  rice.  A  few  other  small  beetles 
besides  the  weevils  are  found  in  the  same  kinds  of 
places    and    have    similar    habits.     All    of   them    have 


90  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

natural  enemies;  but,  living  as  they  do  in  artificial 
homes  with  plenty  to  eat,  they  have  more  of  a  chance  to 
escape  these  than  do  other  insects  which  are  less  pro- 
tected. This  being  the  case,  we  must  do  more  in  the 
way  of  fighting  them  ourselves. 

Butterflies  and  Moths. — It  is  very  easy  to  tell  but- 
terflies and  moths  from  all  other  kinds  of  insects,  because 
they  have  their  wings  covered  with  little  colored  scales 
that  easily  rub  off.  But  it  is  not  quite  so  easy  to  tell 
them  apart.  Of  course  we  know  that  butterflies  fly 
about  in  the  daytime,  when  the  sun  shines,  and  that 
most  of  the  moths  are  night  fliers.  Then,  too,  butter- 
flies have  knobbed  feelers,  but  those  of  the  moth  are 
either  feathered  or  thread-like  and  pointed.  Still  it 
makes  little  difference  to  us,  whether  butterflies  or 
moths,  so  long  as  they  are  harmful. 

Since  it  is  the  young  or  caterpillars  of  these  insect  i 
that  do  the  harm,  we  should  know  more  about  them 
than  about  the  full-grown  insects,  which  only  sip 
the  sweet  juices  of  flowers,  and  fly  about  laying  their 
eggs  and  enjoying  life.  These  caterpillars,  even  if  they 
are  worm-like,  are  different  from  one  another  in  form 
and  appearance.  Some  are  smooth,  some  are  rough 
and  are  more  or  less  covered  with  wart -like  knobs  and 
hairs,  others  are  long  and  slender,  while  still  others  are 
short  and  heavy.  We  call  them  by  such  common  names 
as  cut-worms,  silk- worms,  bag- worms,  army- worms, 
apple-worms,  measuring- worms,  wood-borers,  tent  cater- 
pillars, etc.,  according  to  the  way  in  which  they  live  and 
how  they  look. 

Caterpillars  differ  from  one  another  in  their  habits  as 


HARMFUL  INSECTS  9I 

well  as  in  their  appearance.  Some  go  in  droves  or  ar- 
mies, others  feed  singly  or  alone.  Some  spin  webs  under 
which  to  hide  from  their  enemies,  or  by  which  to  drop 
and  hang  when  disturbed.  Still  others  live  as  borers 
within  the  leaves,  stems,  fruits,  and  seeds  of  plants; 
and  a  few  like  to  eat  clothing,  dried  fruit,  flour,  and  other 
articles  which  we  keep  in  our  homes. 

These  insects  are  quite  rapid  multipliers.  By  this  we 
mean  that  they  increase  in  numbers  very  fast.  Most 
female  moths  and  butterflies  lay  over  a  hundred  eggs 
at  one  time,  and  some  are  known  to  deposit  as  many 
as  five  or  six  hundred,  or  even  more.  Some  kinds  have 
only  a  single  brood  each  year;  but  others  raise  young 
two,  three,  or  it  may  be  four  times  a  year.  A  good 
many  kinds  feed  on  only  one  or  two  species  of  plants, 
but  others  seem  to  be  able  to  eat  almost  anything  that 
grows.  It  is  these  last  that  are  oftenest  the  most  harm- 
ful kinds. 

The  eggs  of  the  butterflies  and  moths  are  nearly 
always  beautiful  objects.  Many  of  them  have  their 
shells  nicely  ridged  with  different  kinds  of  figures  which 
are  arranged  so  as  to  make  them  look  like  small  vases 
and  other  kinds  of  colored  glass  dishes.  From  these 
hatch  the  little  caterpillars.  These  latter  eat  and  grow 
very  fast,  and  shed  their  skin  four  or  five  times  before 
they  are  full  grown  and  ready  to  change  to  the  resting- 
stage.  This  stage  in  these  insects  is  called  the  chrys- 
alis. Sometimes  the  change  from,  a  caterpillar  to 
chrysalis  takes  place  inside  of  a  cocoon  made  of  silk,  or  of 
silk  and  hair.  At  other  times  it  occurs  in  the  ground  in  a 
little  oval  cell;  and  at  still  others  within  the  burrows 


92 


NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


of  the  caterpillars  in  the  stems  or  leaves  of  plants.  The 
caterpillars  of  butterflies  most  always  change  to  the 
chrysalis  without  spinning  cocoons,  or  even  going  into 
the  ground  or  boring  into  plants. 

Cut- Worms  and  Army- Worms. — Every  year  there  is 
more  or  less  damage  done  to  young  plants  on  the  farm  by 
caterpillars   which   we   call   cut-worms.     This  name   is 

given  to  them  be- 
cause they  most 
always  cut  off  the 
plants  near  the 
ground.  A  few 
kinds  even  climb 
up  the  trunks  of 
trees  and  other 
plants  to  do  their 
mischief.  The 
cut-worms  work 
at  night,  but  in 
the  daytime  they 
hide  away  in  the 
ground,  or  tmder 
sticks,  clods,  old  boards,  dried  leaves,  and  other  things 
which  may  be  lying  around  loose.  They  are  the  young 
of  certain  gray  or  dull-colored  moths,  which  also  keep 
themselves  hidden  away  during  the  daytime.  There  are 
a  great  many  different  kinds  of  these  insects.  Some 
of  them  often  appear  in  large  numbers,  and  at  such 
times  are  called  army-worms.  When  present  in  armies 
they  do  not  always  take  the  trouble  to  hide  when  the 
sun  rises,  but   keep  on  feeding  and  moving  about  all 


Fig.  42.     Fall  army-worm. 


HARMFUL  INSECTS  93 

day.  We  know  of  the  genuine,  fall,  the  alfalfa,  and  the 
wheat-head  army-worms  here  in  our  own  state,  and 
there  are  still  others  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

The  cut-worms  and  army-worms  have  dozens  of  kinds 
of  enemies  among  the  useful  insects.  These  most  always 
keep  them  so  nearly  killed  off  that  they  cannot  do  much 
harm  to  our  crops.  Sometimes,  however,  the  weather 
is  not  just  right  for  the  friendly  insects  to  be  about  in 
their  usual  numbers,  and  then  these  harmful  kinds  get 
ahead  of  them.  When  this  is  the  case  we  ourselves 
must  try  to  do  something  to  assist  in  checking  their 
numbers.  We  can  use  heavy  rollers  and  other  machines 
to  crush  the  worms,  or  we  may  plough  furrows  and  dig 
ditches  for  them  to  fall  into  where  they  may  be  killed, 
and  later  harrow  the  ground  to  destroy  the  chrysalids. 
Sometimes  we  may  also  put  out  poisoned  baits  to  which 
they  can  be  enticed  and  killed. 

Tent  Caterpillars. —  These  are  the  young  of  moths 
which  live  on  trees.  They  have  received  their  name 
because  they  spin  webs  that  sometimes  look  like  little 
tents  tucked  away  in  the  forks  of  limbs.  Like  the  cut- 
worms, these  tent  caterpillars  are  of  several  kinds  and 
attack  different  trees.  They  also  work  in  various  ways, 
either  in  spring,  summer,  or  fall.  The  eggs  from  which 
they  hatch  are  laid  by  the  parent  moths  in  clusters 
upon  the  trees.  Those  of  the  kind  that  work  early  in 
spring  are  laid  during  the  previous  fall  and  summer; 
but  those  that  appear  later  are  deposited  the  same  year. 
Some  kinds  of  tent  caterpillars  spin  cocoons  in  which 
they  change  into  the  chrysalis ;  but  others  dig  into  the 
ground  before  making  the  change.     All  kinds  are  more 


94  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

or  less  thickly  covered  with  hair,  and  for  this  reason 
birds  do  not  care  to  eat  them.  The  useful  ichneumon 
flies,  spoken  of  in  another  chapter,  do  not  seem  to  mind 
this,  for  many  of  them  lay  their  eggs  on  the  bodies  of  the 
caterpillars  so  that  their  young  can  feed  upon  them. 
Other  insects,  also,  like  the  flesh  flies,  attack  and  lay 
eggs  on  them;  while  such  forms  as  some  kinds  of  "stink 
bugs,"  caterpillar-hunters,  and  robber  flies,  destroy 
many  more. 

We  can  also  do  much  ourselves  towards  preventing 
our  fruit  and  shade  trees  from  being  harmed  by  these 
caterpillars,  if  we  will  only  take  the  time  to  gather  their 
eggs  during  the  winter  months,  when  the  leaves  are  off 
and  they  can  be  seen.  A  torch  attached  to  a  long  stick 
or  pole  may  be  used  to  burn  the  caterpillars  that  are  too 
far  from  the  ground  to  be  reached  by  hand. 

Cabbage  Worms. — These  are  sometimes  the  young 
of  butterflies,  and  at  other  times  the  young  of  moths. 
The  common  green  ones  are  the  caterpillars  of  the  white 
butterflies  that  flit  around  our  gardens.  There  are  two 
or  three  broods  of  these  worms  every  year,  so  that  we 
seem  to  have  them  all  summer.  They  are  killed  by 
some  of  the  smaller  ichneumon  flies,  one  or  two  kinds  of 
"  stink  bugs, "  and  a  few  of  the  digger  wasps  and  ground 
beetles.  Toads  also  sometimes  eat  them.  The  Eng- 
lish sparrows  likewise  feed  many  of  them,  as  well  as 
other  insects,  to  their  young  during  the  summer  months. 

The  Apple- Worm,  or  Codling  Moth  is  responsible 
for  most  if  not  all  of  the  wormy  apples  in  this  part  of 
the  country.  So  a  few  words  about  it  may  be  useful 
here.     In  the  spring  of  the  year,  just  after  the  blossoms 


HARMFUL  INSECTS  95 

fall,  a  small  gray  moth,  with  a  dull,  brownish,  copper- 
colored  patch  near  the  outer  edge  of  each  front  wing, 
lays  its  eggs  in  the  flower  end  of  the  apples.  These  soon 
hatch,  and  the  little  worms  eat  their  way  into  the  fruit. 
In  about  a  month  or  six  weeks  they  are  full  grown  and 
leave  the  apples,  going  quietly  to  the  ground,  cracks  in 
the  bark,  and  other  places  to  spin  their  cocoons  and 
change  to  the  resting-stage.  Ten  days  or  two  weeks 
later  they  have  changed  to  moths,  which,  in  turn,  lay 
their  eggs  on  the  half -grown  apples.  This  time  many  of 
the  eggs  are  placed  between  two  apples  that  touch,  or 
between  an  apple  and  a  limb,  as  well  as  in  the  blossom 
end.  Some  of  the  worms  from  the  eggs  of  this  second 
brood  become  full  grown  and  leave  the  apple  early 
enough  to  change  to -moths  in  time  to  produce  a  third 
brood  of  the  worms  before  winter.  Most  of  this  second 
brood,  however,  live  over  winter  in  cracks,  in  the  bark  on 
trees,  or  else  are  taken  in  fruit  to  cellars  and  other  places 
where  they  find'  safe  retreats  in  which  to  pass  the  winter. 

Spraying  with  Paris  green  and  other  poisons  soon  after 
the  eggs  are  laid  for  the  first  worms  is  the  best  remedy. 
Not. so  much  good  can  be  done  later  in  the  summer  by 
spraying.  Picking  up  the  windfalls  and  giving  them  to 
the  hogs  will  likewise  do  some  good.  This  worm  also 
has  its  enemies  among  the  useful  insects  mentioned  in 
another  chapter. 

Flies,  Mosquitoes,  and  Gnats. — Besides  all  of  the  in- 
sects about  which  we  have  already  learned,  we  know 
of  still  others  that  are  of  harm  in  one  or  more  ways. 
Some  of  these  we  call  by  such  names  as  "horse"  flies, 
the  house  fly,  mosquitoes,  gnats,  etc.     These,  instead 


96 


NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


of  feeding  on  plants,  suck  the  blood  or  live  on  the  bodies 
of  some  of  our  tame  animals.  Quite  a  number  of  them 
also  bite  and  tease  us  when  we  are  out  of  doors  on  the 
prairie  or  in  the  fields.  Doctors  tell  us  that  some  of 
these  insects  help  to  spread  diseases  like  malaria  and 
yellow  fever.     When  mosquitoes  are  numerous  about 

the  house  we  can  get 
»»>>^,       ,  rid  of  some  of  them 

by  putting  a  few 
drops  of  coal  oil  in 
the  rain-water  barrel 
so  as  to  kill  the  wrig- 
glers, which  later  tiun 
into  mosquitoes. 

Some  insects  do 
harm  at  certain  times 
in  their  lives,  while 
at  others  they  are 
useful.  The  "oil"  beetles  or  "blister"  beetles  are  ex- 
amples of  this  kind.  While  young  many  of  them  live 
in  the  ground  and  feed  on  the  eggs  of  the  short- 
horned  grasshoppers  or  locusts,  but  when  full  grown 
eat  the  leaves  of  plants.  These  beetles  attack 
most  kinds  of  cultivated  plants,  and  quite  a  num- 
ber of  the  wild  ones.  The  young  of  certain  flies, 
gnats,  and  mosquitoes  are  also  useful  since  they  eat 
dead  and  decaying  animals  and  plants;  but  when  they 
are  full  grown  they  live  on  the  blood  of  man  and  beast. 
They  are  known  also  to  carry  the  germs  of  diseases 
and  drop  them  into  our  food  or  in  sores  on  our  bodies, 
and  in  this  way  do  a  great  deal  of  harm. 


Fio.  43.     Mosquito,     a.   Male,    6.   Head 
of  female ;    /,  g.  Young. 


HARMFUL  INSECTS 


97 


Remedies. — When  harmful  insects  are  more  than 
ordinarily  numerous  they  damage  crops.  At  such  times 
it  is  often  best  for  us  to  help  their  natural  enemies  in 
killing  them  off.  When  we  at- 
tempt this  we  must  do  it  in  differ- 
ent ways  for  different  kinds  of 
insects.  Some  we  can  kill  by  har- 
rowing the  ground  or  by  the  use 
of  heavy  rollers  for  running  over 
and  crushing  them.  Others  can 
be  killed  by  spraying 
their  food-plants  with 
poisons  which  they 
will  eat  and  be  de- 
stroyed. Still  others 
may  be  reduced  in 
numbers  by  spraying 
with  substances  that 
would  kill  by  coming 
in  contact  with  them. 
In  small  gardens  we 
can  pick  them  by 
hand,  and  later  burn 
or  crush  them.  Still  others  may  be  killed  by  poison- 
ous fumes  or  gases.  Fires  in  stubble  fields,  on  the 
orairie,  and  about  old  weed  patches  may  be  resorted  to 
for  killing  certain  others,  while  torches  fastened  to  sticks 
will  reach  -caterpillars  in  trees,  as  already  suggested  on 
another  page. 

Some   insects,    as   for   example   those   with   sucking 
mouth  parts,  must.be  killed  by  the  use  of  kerosene 


■=-S2^&' 


Fig.  44. 


98  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

"emulsion,"  or  a  mixture  of  coal  oil  and  water,  or  by 
some  other  similar  substance  that  will  kill  from  the 
outside.  But  these  mixtures  must  not  be  too  strong  or 
they  will  kill  the  plants  also.  They  can  be  sprinkled  on 
the  bugs  with  spray  pumps  of  different  kinds. 

For  the  names  of  these  mixtures  and  learning  how 
they  can  be  made,  you  had  better  write  to  the  "bug- 
man"  at  the  State  University,  who  will  gladly  tell  you 
what  you  wish  to  know.  In  the  mean  while  try  to  find 
out  all  you  can  about  how  the  different  kinds  of  insects 
live,  and  what  their  natural  enemies  are. 

Spiders  and  Mites. — As  a  rule  the  life  histories  of 
most  of  our  spiders  are  such  as  to  make  them  useful. 
Both  the  web-makers  and  those  that  live  in  holes  catch 
different  kinds  of  insects  upon  which  they  feed.  The 
web-makers  especially  destroy  large  numbers  of  flies, 
gnats,  and  mosquitoes;  while  many  a  moth  and  other 
harmful  insect  is  entrapped  by  the  beautiful  circular 
webs  that  are  nightly  stretched  for  this  purpose,  in 
prominent  places,  among  vegetation. 

Ground  spiders  are  generally  dark  colored,  while  those 
that  live  among  and  on  plants  are  lighter  colored  and 
more  or  less  ornamented  with  spots,  stripes,  and  bands 
so  as  to  assist  in  hiding  them  from  the  insects  upon 
which  they  feed. 

Spiders  are  destroyed  by  quite  a  large  number  of  other 
kinds  of  animals.  Wasps  use  them  for  food  for  their 
yoimg,  as  mentioned  on  another  page.  A  number  of 
small  ichneumon  flies  destroy  their  eggs.  Birds  also 
catch  and  eat  large  numbers  of  them. 

Mites. — The  mites,  which  are  close  relatives  of  spiders, 


HARMFUL  INSECTS  99 

are  both  useful  and  harmful.  The  useful  kinds,  like  the 
small  red  one  which  we  find  on  the  wings  of  the  grass- 
hopper, attack  insects.  The  harmful  ones,  like  the  itch 
and  mange  mites  and  the  "red  spider,"  attack  our 
domestic  animals  or  work  on  the  leaves  of  plants. 

Dipping  an  animal  that  is  suffering  from  mange  in  a 
solution  of  zenoleum  or  chloral  naphtholeum,  will  kill  the 
mites  that  produce  it  and  cure  the  disease.  Burning 
sulphur  in  a  greenhouse  where  there  are  "red  spiders" 
will  destroy  them. 

Myriapods,  or  Many  legs,  are  of  two  kinds,  when  we 
consider  what  they  eat.  They  may  also  be  separated 
into  two  groups  by  the  arrangement  of  their  legs.  The 
plant-eating  kinds  have  two  pairs  of  legs  to  each  ring 
of  the  body,  while  the  flesh-eating  kinds  have  only  one 
pair  to  each  ring.  The  poisonous  kinds  are  among  these 
last  mentioned;  but  few  if  any  of  the  kinds  found  in 
Nebraska  are  dangerous. 


1.  How  do  grasshoppers  live  through  the  winter?  Where  do 
they  lay  their  eggs  ?     In  what  ways  may  the  eggs  be  killed  ? 

2.  How  do  plant  lice  and  chinch-bugs  get  their  food?  Can 
they  be  poisoned?  How  can  we  kill  plant  lice?  What  insects 
kill  them  ? 

3.  How  can  you  tell  a  beetle  from  other  insects? 

4.  Where  do  the  larvae  of  mosquitos  live?  What  diseases  are 
spread  by  mosquitos?  What  did  the  Americans  do  to  stop  the 
yellow  fever  in  Cuba  ? 

5.  Name  the  ten  insects  which  you  think  do  the  most  damage 
in  Nebraska.  What  may  be  done  to  keep  each  one  down? 
What  is  done  in  your  county  to  control  insect  pests? 

See  page  197  for  exercises  to  be  taken  up  in  connection  with 
pages  51  to  100  of  the  text,  as  the  class  is  prepared  for  them. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


BIRDS 


Quite  prominent  among  the  various  animals  which  we 
see  almost  every  day  of  our  lives  are  the  birds.  They 
are  of  great  variety,  and  have  different  habits,  one  from 

the  other.  Next  to  the 
insects,  they  are  the 
most  numerous  of  all 
the  forms  that  live  on 
land.  Of  course  there 
is  a  reason  for  this,  and 
by  stopping  to  think  v/e 
may  be  able  to  tell  just 
what  this  reason  is.  If 
we  don't  know  it  now, 
i-^  -"^fk  '^^}  v^^i^^  "^^  '^il^  before  we  finish 

reading      the      present 
chapter. 

Birds  differ  from  other 
animals  by  having  their  bodies  covered  with  feathers 
instead  of  with  hair,  fur,  or  scales.  Then,  too,  many  of 
them  have  their  front  legs  so  changed  that  they  can  be 
used  for  flying  through  the  air.  Only  the  hind  legs  are 
fitted  and  used  for  perching,  running,  and  walking. 

Birds  are  found  all  over  the  surface  of  the  earth,  from 
the  warmer  to  the  colder  parts,  both  on  land  and  water. 
It  seems,  too,  that  man  has  been  interested  in  them  for 

lOO 


Fig,  45.    Black-capped  chickadee  or 
Titmouse. 


BIRDS  lOI 

a  very  long  time.  More  than  three  thousand  years  ago 
some  kinds  had  already  been  tamed  by  the  half-wild 
people  who  lived  then.  Some  of  the  people  who  lived 
in  America  long  before  it  was  discovered  by  Columbus 
also  had  tame  birds.  Perhaps  a  few  words  about  these 
kinds  that  have  been  tamed  will  be  interesting  to  town- 
folks. 

Birds  that  have  been  Tamed. — Chickens  are  first  and 
foremost  among  these;  for,  of  course,  they  are  birds  just 
as  truly  as  the  English  sparrow  or  the  robin.  Although 
chickens  are  now  of  so  many  breeds,  they  all  came  from 
a  single  kind  of  wild  bird,  which  is  still  found  in  the 
jungles  or  forests  of  southeastern  Asia.  This  wild  bird 
is  called  the  jungle  fowl  or  jungle  bird,  which  is  very 
much  the  same  in  its  appearance  as  some  of  the  tame 
game  cocks  of  to-day. 

But  the  many  changes  in  living,  which  the  tame  birds 
have  been  made  to  pass  through  in  these  thousands  of 
years,  while  living  in  places  away  from  their  forest  homes, 
have  produced  the  differences  that  occur  between  the 
langshangs,  Plymouth  rocks,  cochins,  Spanish,  and 
other  breeds  and  crosses.  Each  country  seems  to  have 
produced  one  or  more  well-marked  forms  of  chickens. 
The  uses  of  chickens  are  many.  But  these  need  not  be 
mentioned  here. 

Turkeys. — If  the  Old  World  claims  the  honor  of  fur- 
nishing man  with  the  chickens,  America  can  boast  of  an 
equally  valuable  prize  in  the  turkey.  What  a  noble 
bird!  How  could  our  ancestors,  of  only  a  few  hundred 
years  ago,  in  Europe,  celebrate  such  days  as  Thanksgiving 
and  Christmas  without  turkeys  ? 


I02  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

While  turkeys  have  been  tamed  for  a  much  shorter 
time  than  chickens,  they  are  already  pretty  well  spread 
over  the  civilized  world.  There  are,  also,  a  number  of 
distinct  breeds  of  this  bird.  They  came  from  our  wild 
turkey  and  the  Mexican  wild  turkey.  The  latter  bird 
is  a  little  but  not  very  different  from  ours.  Not  many 
years  ago  plenty  of  wild  turkeys  were  still  to  be  found  in 
parts  of  Nebraska;  but  to-day  few,  if  any,  remain. 

Guinea  Hens  originally  came  from  east  Africa, 
where  they  live  wild  in  the  jungles.  Although  an  easy 
fowl  to  raise,  they  are  too  noisy  for  most  people.  Then, 
too,  their  flesh  is  rather  dark  colored  and  less  inviting 
as  an  article  of  food  than  that  of  the  ordinary  fowl. 
Neither  does  the  guinea  fowl  lay  eggs  save  in  the  spring 
or  early  summer.  There  have  also  been  produced 
several  breeds  of  the  guinea  fowl  which  differ  quite  a 
great  deal  from  the  wild  form. 

The  Peacock,  or  Pea-Fowl,  like  the  chicken,  was 
also  first  tamed  in  India  or  southeastern  Asia,  where 
quite  a  number  of  different  kinds  of  pheasants  and 
pheasant-like  birds  are  still  to  be  found  living  wild. 
Unlike  the  other  birds  mentioned  above,  the  peacock  is 
raised  more  for  ornament  than  for  food  purposes.  Its 
very  large  tail  and  other  bright  colored  feathers  make  it 
a  nice  object  to  look  at.  Hence  it  is  kept  in  gardens 
and  parks  among  other  beautiful  things  like  the  trees 
and  flowers,  to  be  looked  at  and  admired. 

Pigeons. — All  of  our  tame  doves,  or  pigeons,  come 
from  the  wild  bird  known  as  the  blue  rock-dove,  also  of 
the  Old  World.  Some  of  the  many  breeds  of  pigeons 
have  been  raised  for  special  purposes.     One  of  these  is 


BIRDS  103 

the  "homing"  dove,  as  it  is  called,  and  is  sometimes 
used  for  carrying  letters  from  place  to  place.  On 
account  of  the  many  times  that  they  nest  during  the 
year  pigeons  are  much  used  for  food  purposes.  They 
are  also  in  demand  by  would-be  sportsmen  for  trap- 
shooting,  which  some  of  us  do  not  indorse. 

Ducks  and  Geese. — The  different  breeds  of  tame 
ducks  are  mostly  off-shoots  of  the  wild  mallard  found 
in  the  Old  World  and  in  North  America.  Some  of  the 
tamed  varieties  do  not  look  much  like  their  ancestors. 
Neither  do  many  of  the  different  kinds  of  chickens 
resemble  the  jungle  fowl  from  which  they  came. 

Tame  geese  are  the  descendants  of  two  kinds  of  wild 
ones,  both  of  which  are  found  in  the  Old  World.  Many 
of  our  wild  kinds  could  also  be  tamed,  and  would  make 
just  as  valuable  birds  for  the  farm  as  do  those  we  have 
now ;  but  there  is  no  need  of  our  going  to  all  the  trouble 
of  taming  these  when  we  already  have  those  that  are 
good  enough.  Besides,  to  tame  animals  and  to  get 
them  to  so  change  their  lives  as  to  be  at  home  under  all 
the  different  circumstances  which  would  be  necessary, 
takes  a  long  time. 

Canary  birds,  mocking-birds,  parrots,  and  a  few 
others  have  been  caged  for  house  birds,  but  these  are  of 
no  especial  use  on  the  farm,  therefore,  we  will  say 
nothing  about  them  here 

Wild  Birds. — It  is  concerning  the  wild,  or  untamed, 
birds  that  we  are  the  most  interested,  and  about  which 
a  great  deal  can  be  said  that  will  be  of  use  to  the  farmer 
as  well  as  to  all  other  persons.  Nebraska  is  a  very  good 
home   for   such   wild   birds.     We   know   of  more   than 


I04 


NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


four  hundred  different  kinds  that  have  been  found  here. 
Of  these  about  two  hundred  nest  in  the  state  every 
year;  and  perhaps  as  many  as  fifty  others  sometimes. 
In  winter  more  than  one  hundred  remain  with  us,  while 
the  others  leave  in  fall  for  the  warmer  south  country, 
only  to  return  to  us  with  the  pleasant  weather  of  spring. 

While  there  is  much 
to  be  learned  about  the 
migrations,  nesting, 
moulting,  songs,  and 
peculiar  ways  of  living 
among  the  different 
birds  that  we  may  see 
in  our  groves  and  fields, 
along  the  streams,  on 
the  prairies,  and  about 
the  hedge-rows  and  gar- 
den patches,  the  most 
important  feature  con- 
nected with  their  lives  to 
us  is  their  food  habits.  For  it  is  by  what  they  eat  that  birds 
make  themselves  of  so  much  use  to  us.  Of  course  birds 
are  of  different  sizes  and  forms,  and  have  their  beaks, 
feet,  wings,  and  tails  made  so  as  best  to  conform  to  the 
uses  for  which  they  are  intended.  The  wood-peckers  have 
hard,  chisel-like  beaks  for  cutting  wood;  and  at  the  same 
time,  their  tail  feathers  are  stiff  and  pointed  so  as  to  be 
of  use  as  props  to  hold  the  birds  in  place  while  they  are 
busily  engaged  at  nest-making  or  digging  for  borers. 
In  a  like  manner  their  long  tongues  are  barbed  so  as 
to  spear  and  drag  out  the  worms  when  reached.     The 


Fig.  46.     Goldfinch. 


BIRDS 


105 


short,  strong  beaks  of  the  sparrows  and  their  relatives 
are  exactly  suited  for  cracking  the  many  kinds  of  weed 
seeds  eaten  by  these  birds  in  winter,  as  well  as  for 
crushing  such  insects  as  are  fed  to  their  young  in  sum- 
mer. 

On  account  of  this  most  important  feature  in  connec- 


FiG.  47.    Western  meadowlark. 

tion  with  our  wild  birds  we  will  talk  more  about  what 
they  eat  now,  and  leave  the  description  of  them,  their 
haunts,  migrations,  nest-building,  etc.,  for  another 
time.  Then,  too,  almost  everybody  already  knows 
some  of  these  things  about  most  of  our  common  birds. 

Usefulness  of  Birds. — Birds  can  be  useful  to  us  in 
many  ways.  They  can  carry  the  seeds  of  different 
plants  from  place  to  place  so  as  to  help  start  new  groves 
in  which  we  may  find  shelter  from  the  cold  in  winter 
and  the  heat  in  summer.  They  plant  shrubs  by  the 
wayside  that  spring  up  and  later  bear  good  fruit.     They 


I06  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

also  carry  the  eggs  of  fishes  and  small  crustaceans  among 
their  feathers  into  new  waters, 'and  feed  upon  the  count- 
less millions  of  weed  seeds  that  are  scattered  over  our 
fields.  Some  kinds  live  almost  entirely  on  insects; 
while  others  hunt  out  and  destroy  such  small  animals 
as  mice,  ground  squirrels,  and  gophers.  Still  other 
birds,  like  some  of  the  useful  insects  spoken  of  in  another 
chapter,  act  as  scavengers  by  helping  to  remove  decay- 
ing things  that  would  make  us  sick  if  not  cleared  away. 

In  addition  to  these  direct  benefits  which  are  the  gifts 
of  birds,  we  are  further  indebted  to  them  for  the  cheer 
which  their  gay  music,  bright  plumage,  and  pleasant 
manners  bring  to  us.  The  birds  form  a  carefully  planned 
army  of  police,  which  is  engaged  in  keeping  things  bal- 
anced in  nature. 

But  we  can  go  even  further  when  summing  up  the 
benefits  that  human  beings  may  derive  from  birds.  A 
great  many  kinds  are  excellent  food,  while  others  fur- 
nish soft  feathers  for  pillows  and  warm  coverlets  on  our 
beds. 

Birds  as  Enemies. — Everybody  knows  that  birds 
sometimes  also  do  harm.  So  we  must  try  to  learn  just 
what  this  is  and  whether  or  not  it  is  as  great  as  some 
people  would  try  to  make  us  believe.  Quite  a  number 
of  different  birds  are  continually  doing  things  that  we 
call  wrong.  If  we  only  knew  of  these  wrong  things  and 
nothing  of  the  good  they  do,  it  might  go  pretty  hard 
with  the  doers. 

Some  of  the  wrong  things  that  birds  do  are  cherry  and 
berry  stealing,  grain  eating,  grape  puncturing,  apple 
pecking,  com  pulling,  the  carrying  of  some  kinds  of  bark 


BIRDS  107 

lice  on  their  feet  from  one  place  to  another,  the  spread- 
ing of  hog  cholera  by  crows  and  turkey  buzzards,  the 
robbing  of  the  poultry  yard,  and  lastly  the  disturbing 
of  our  slumbers  in  the  morning  by  their  singing. 

Some  of  these  so-called  crimes  are  genuine  and  are  to 
be  regretted.  Others  are  more  imaginary  than  real. 
A  few  of  them  could  be  prevented  in  part  or  altogether, 
while  others  might  be  made  less  severe  if  we  were  in- 
clined to  take  the  trouble  to  do  it.  After  all  that  can 
be  said  in  favor  of  and  against  the  usefulness  of  birds  in 
general,  there  can  be  no  doubt  leit,in  the  minds  of  think- 
ing people  at  least,  as  to  the  value  of  these  creatures. 
Only  ignorant  and  thoughtless  persons  will  continue  to 
destroy  our  birds  after  learning  facts  like  these  about 
them. 

Food  Habits  of  Birds.. — So  varied  is  this  task  of 
*'  evening  up  "  in  nature  spoken  of  above,  that  if  attended 
to  in  the  right  way,  the  workers  must  be  many  and  have 
widely  different  habits.  That  such  is  the  fact,  can 
easily  be  seen  from  the  following  short  account  of  the 
food-habits  of  some  of  the 
different  groups  of  our 
birds. 

Grebes  and  loons  feed 
chiefly  on  snails  and  other 
water  animals  such  as  are 
found  about  ponds,  lakes,  and 
rivers.  They  also  destroy 
grasshoppers  when  found 
about  their  haunts. 

The  gulls,  with   their  long  pio.  48.    Kin^rd. 


I08  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

wings  and  great  powers  of  flight,  often  reach  far  inland 
in  their  journeys.  Whenever  they  do  they  catch  large 
numbers  of  grasshoppers,  crickets,  June-beetles,  and 
other  common  insects.  Four  or  five  kinds  of  these 
birds  breed  in  large  numbers  in  our  state  every  summer. 

The  ducks  and  geese,  like  their  tame  relatives,  are 
also  fond  of  insects,  which  they  catch  about  the  margins 
of  ponds  and  lakes  near  which  they  build  their  nests 
and  raise  their  young.  Even  such  birds  as  the  bittern 
and  shitepoke  kill  many  insects  in  addition  to  the  small 
fishes,  frogs,  snails,  and  other  animals  which  in  part 
make  up  their  bill  of  fare. 

The  different  kinds  of  snipes  and  their  relatives  are 
also  great  destroyers  of  insects.  Moving,  as  many  of 
them  do,  in  large  flocks  which  spread  out  over  the 
meadows,  pastures,  hillsides,  and  fields,  they  perform 
a  large  amount  of  careful  police  service  in  arresting  the 
rascals  among  insects.  They  even  pry  them  out  of 
cracks  and  holes  in  the  ground  where  they  have  crawled 
and  are  hiding  during  the  daytime. 

The  prairie  chicken  and  sharp-tailed  grouse,  as  well 
as  the  quail,  or  "bob white,"  all  feed  almost  entirely  on 
insects  in  summer.  They  also  eat  large  numbers  of 
these  creatures  during  the  remainder  of  the  year  when- 
ever they  can  get  them.  The  quail  especially  is  to 
be  considered  one  of  the  very  best  insect  destroyers, 
since  it  will  eat  both  the  Colorado  potato-beetle  and  the 
chinch-bug.  Perhaps  no  other  bird  on  the  farm  pays 
higher  prices  for  the  grain  it  eats  than  does  the  quail. 
Living  in  the  hedge-rows,  groves,  and  in  ravines,  where 
insects  gather  and  lurk  during  the  greater  part  of  the 


BIRDS  109 

year,  this  bird  seizes  large  numbers  of  these  enemies 
daily.  Not  only  during  the  summer  months  when  they 
are  moving  about,  but  all  winter,  too,  it  scratches  among 
the  fallen  leaves  and  other  rubbish  seeking  for  hiber- 
nating insects  of  various  kinds.  Being  a  timid  bird  it 
seldom  leaves  cover  to  feed  openly  in  the  fields,  and 
therefore  does  little  real  harm  in  the  way  of  destroying 
grain. 

Even  the  barnyard  fowls  do  much  in  the  way  of 
destroying  many  kinds  of  insects  throughout  the  sum- 
mer. Where  fields  can  be  gone  over  by  chickens,  tur- 
keys, guinea  hens,  and  ducks,  little  or  no  damage  is 
done  by  the  grasshoppers  and  cut-worms,  unless,  of 
course,  these  insects  are  too  numerous  to  be  eaten  by  them. 

Ordinarily  doves  and  pigeons  are  not  considered  harm- 
ful. Yet  they  eat  but  few  insects.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  many  weed  seeds  are  eaten  by  them.  Perhaps, 
all  told,  the  good  done  by  them  during  the  year  will 
more  than  balance  the  harm  caused  by  their  visits  to 
the  grain-fields  and  feed-lots. 

During  recent  years,  since  we  have  been  watching 
more  carefully  just  what  the  various  species  of  birds 
have  been  eating,  it  has  been  found  that  many  of  those 
which  we  have  heretofore  called  rascals  are  now  known 
to  be  friends.  Hawks  and  owls,  all  of  which  were  killed 
on  sight  by  nearly  every  man  or  boy  who  could  shoot, 
are  now  spared,  except  when  caught  in  the  very  act  of 
stealing  chickens.  This  is  because  we  know  that  they 
feed  mostly  on  mice,  squirrels,  gophers,  prairie  dogs, 
and  rabbits,  as  well  as  on  many  harmful  kinds  of  insects. 

Our  yellow-billed  and  black-billed  cuckoos  feed  chiefly 


no  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

on  hairy  caterpillars  and  several  other  kinds  of  insects, 
which  they  find  lurking  among  the  leaves  of  trees.  They 
even  come  about  our  houses  and  into  the  towns  and 
cities  for  their  favorite  insects. 

There  are  few  persons  who  will  not  admit  that  the 
woodpeckers,  as  a  family,  are  very  useful  birds.  Feed- 
ing, as  they  do,  on  the  young  of  wood-boring  insects, 
they  can  do  more  relative  good  for  the  number  of  insects 
destroyed  than  if  they  fed  on  such  kinds  as  attack  the 
leaves.  A  single  borer  left  undisturbed  might  kill  a 
tree,  while  hundreds  of  leaf-eaters  of  the  same  size 
would  scarcely  be  noticed  in  the  appearance,  to  say 
nothing  about  the  health,  of  the  same  tree.  Some  com- 
mon kinds  of  woodpeckers  in  this  country  are  the  flicker, 
red-headed,  downy,  and  hairy,  all  of  which  are  often 
seen  about  the  groves  and  orchards,  where  they  care- 
fully hunt  for  borers  and  other  harmful  insects. 

Birds  like  the  whippoorwill,  night  hawk,  and  chimney- 
swift  eat  nothing  but  such  insects  as  those  which  they 
catch  in  the  air  while  flying  about.  The  first  two  are 
the  night  fliers,  while  the  other  is  one  of  our  birds  that 
fly  during  daytime. 

The  family  to  which  the  kingbird  or  bee-bird 
belongs  is  also  one  that  is  made  up  of  insect  eaters. 
They  catch  such  kinds  as  flies,  butterflies,  moths,  beetles, 
and  grasshoppers.  The  few  bees  eaten  by  the  bee-bird 
should  not  count  against  the  other  members  of  the 
family,  nor  should  we  blame  even  the  bee-killer  himself 
too  much  for  the  occasional  rascal  of  his  kind  that 
prefers  to  sit  near  a  hive  and  catch  drones  and  an  occa- 
sional worker. 


BIRDS 


III 


Crows  and  their  relatives,  the  magpies  and  jays,  are 
sometimes  called  rascals.  Perhaps  there  is  a  good  rea- 
son in  a  number  of  cases  for  giving  these  birds  so  bad  a 
name;  but  we  must  not  judge  too  hastily,  for  sometimes 
there  are  good  deeds  done  even  by  the  greatest  of  ras- 
cals. After  finding  out  what  all  these  deeds,  good  and 
bad,  are,  we  may  think  that  enough  good  has  been  done 
at  least  to  give  the  rascal  another  chance.  All  of  these 
birds  eat  more  insects,  bulk  for  bulk,  than  they  do  of 
any  other  substances. 

The  blue  jay  does  much  of  the  mischief  for  which  we 
blame  the  robin,  orioles,  and  thrushes,  and  then  sneaks 
away  like  a  thief.  He  also  robs  the  nests  of  some  of 
our  smaller  and  weaker  birds.  To  partly  offset  these 
mean  acts  he  destroys  large  numbers  of  injurious  insects. 

The  meadowlark,  orioles,  and  blackbirds  are  the  most 
important  destroyers  of  such  insect  pests  as  attack 
field  crops,  that  we  have.  They  are  with  us  during  the 
whole  year  save  only 
during  a  few  months  in 
winter ;  and  gathering 
in  large  flocks,  as  several 
kinds  do,  they  can  wipe 
out  an  insect  plague  in 
a  short  time.  Don't 
kill  any  of  these  very 
useful  birds,  for  they 
more  than  pay  for  the 
food  they  get,  aside  from 
insects. 

Our        sparrows        and  Pig.  49.    Red-headed  woodpecker. 


112  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

their  relatives  form  a  very  extensive  family  ot 
highly  useful,  as  well  as  beautiful,  birds.  They 
spend  most  of  their  time  during  the  summer 
months  in  hunting  for  and  destroying  different  kinds  of 
insects.  But  this  is  not  all  the  good  they  do.  In  fall, 
winter,  and  early  spring,  when  mother  earth  has  lost 
her  beautiful  green  dress  and  is  clothed  instead  in 
somber  browns  or  wrapped  in  a  mantle  of  snow  and  ice, 
the  longspurs,  snowbuntings,  snowbirds,  and  some  of 
the  sparrows  that  have  remained  with  us,  are  busily 
engaged  in  gathering  for  themselves  a  living.  They  hop 
and  fly  from  place  to  place  hunting  for  and  picking  up 
little  seeds  of  grasses,  weeds,  shrubs,  and  trees  with 
which  to  feed  themselves  till  the  warm  weather  returns 
and  brings  back  the  abundant  supply  of  nourishing 
insects.  Even  during  this  busy  cold  season,  they 
chirrup  merrily  as  they  work,  so  satisfied  are  they  with 
the  kind  of  life  they  are  living. 

The  English,  or  European,  house-sparrow, has  the  worst 
reputation  of  the  entire  family.  But  even  it  has  some 
good  traits,  which  tend  to  secure  for  it  our  friendship. 

The  swallows  are  insect  destroyers;  and  seizing  their 
prey  as  they  fliy,  they  naturally  take  such  forms  as  flies, 
gnats,  and  mosquitoes — our  worst  personal  enemies. 
We  should,  by  all  means,  encourage  these  birds  to  build 
their  nests  about  our  barns  and  sheds  so  that  they  may 
pay  rent  by  destroying  the  various  flies  that  attack  and 
worry  our  farm  animals. 

The  shrikes,  or  butcher-birds,  are  genuine  brigands  or 
pirates,  when  it  comes  to  killing  other  forms  of  life. 
They  are  true  to  their  name,  and  butcher  large  niun- 


BIRDS  113 

bers  of  insects,  mice,  lizards,  small  snakes,  and  even  a 
few  of  the  smaller  birds.  These  they  take  to  some 
thorn  bush  or  barbed  wire  fence  and  impale  their  vic- 
tims for  future  use  or  to  dry  up  and  blow  away.  The 
good  they  do  will  more  than  outweigh  the  harm. 

The  vireos,  or  greenlets  as  they  are  sometimes  called, 
which  frequent  thickets  and  hedgerows,  live  almost 
entirely  on  an  insect  diet.  Their  food  is  composed 
chiefly  of  little  caterpillars  and  grubs  picked  off  the 
leaves  of  the  small  trees  and  shrubs  which  form  the 
shelter  in  which  they  make  their  homes. 

In  the  words  of  that  pleasing  writer.  Dr.  Elliott 
Coues:*  "The  warblers  we  have  always  with  us,  all  in 
their  own  good  time;  they  come  out  of  the  south,  pass 
on,  return,  and  are  away  again,  their  appearance  and 
withdrawal  scarcely  less  than  a  mystery;  many  stay 
with  us  all  summer  long,  and  some  brave  the  winters  in 
our  midst.  Some  of  these  slight  creatures,  guided  by 
unerring  instinct,  travel  true  to  the  meridian  in  the  hours 
of  darkness,  slipping  past  like  the  thief  in  the  night, 
stopping  at  daybreak  in  their  lofty  flights  to  rest  and 
recruit  for  the  next  stage  of  the  journey.  Others  pass 
more  leisurely  from  tree  to  tree  in  a  ceaseless  tide  of 
migration,  gleaning  as  they  go;  the  hardier  males,  in 
full  song  and  plumage,  lead  the  way  for  the  weaker 
females  and  yearlings.  With  tireless  industry  do  the 
warblers  befriend  the  human  race;  their  unconscious 
^eal  plays  due  part  in  the  nice  adjustment  of  nature's 
forces,  helping  to  bring  about  the  balance  of  vegetable 
and  insect  life,  without  which  agriculture  would  be  in 

*Key  to  North  American  Birds,  p.  288. 


I  14  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

vain.  They  visit  the  orchard  when  the  apple  and  pear, 
the  peach,  plum,  and  cherry  are  in  bloom,  seeming  to 
revel  carelessly  amid  the  sweet-scented  and  delicately- 
tinted  blossoms,  but  never  faltering  in  their  good  work. 
They  peer  into  the  crevices  of  the  bark,  scrutinize  each 
leaf,  and  explore  the  heart  of  the  buds,  to  detect,  drag 
forth  and  destroy  these  tiny  creatures,  singly  insignifi- 
cant, collectively  a  scourge,  which  prey  upon  the  hopes 
of  the  fruit-grower,  and  which,  if  undisturbed,  would 
bring  his  care  to  naught. 

"Some  warblers  flit  incessantly  in  the  terminal  foliage 
of  the  tallest  trees ;  others  hug  close  to  the  scarred  trunks 
and  gnarled  boughs  of  the  forest  kings ;  some  peep  from 
the  thicket,  coppice,  and  the  impenetrable  mantle  of 
shrubbery  that  decks  tiny  water-courses,  playing  at 
hide  and  seek  with  all  comers;  others,  more  humble  still, 
descend  to  the  ground,  where  they  glide  with  pretty, 
mincing  steps  and  affected  turnings  of  the  head  this 
way  and  that,  their  delicate  flesh-tinted  feet  just  stirring 
the  layer  of  withered  leaves  with  which  a  past  season 
has  carpeted  the  ground.  We  may  seek  warblers  every- 
where in  the  season ;  we  may  find  them  a  continued  sur- 
prise; all  mood  and  circumstance  is  theirs. " 

Much  could  be  written  concerning  birds  like  the 
thrushes,  wrens,  mockingbird,  and  catbird.  But  they 
are  too  well  known  in  one  way  or  another  to  make  it 
necessary  to  spend  either  time  or  space  here  for  the  pur- 
pose of  introducing  them  anew.  Suffice  it  to  say,  they 
more  than  pay  for  what  they  eat  by  killing  off  some  of 
our  most  harmful  insects.  Then,  too,  they  are  among 
the  most  beautiful  singers  of  the  feathered  choir. 


BIRDS  115 

The  nuthatches,  titmice,  and  others  of  our  winter 
and  early  spring  birds  are  too  well  known  as  friends  to 
make  it  necessary  here  for  even  hinting  at  their  usefulness. 
The  eggs  of  many  hibernating  insects  are  quite  promi- 
nent among  the  things  eaten  by  them  through  the  sea- 
son when  the  trees  are  bare. 

The  robin  and  bluebirds  need  no  introduction  to  our 
boys  and  girls.  We  all  know  them  only  to  wish  that 
their  numbers  could  be  greatly  increased.  The  former, 
as  he  hops  over  the  blue-grass  covered  lawn  in  search 
of  cut- worms,  is  engaged  in  his  chief  occupation.  Sev- 
enteen quarts  of  caterpillars,  it  is  claimed,  is  the  average 
number  of  such  insects  destroyed  by  each  robin  annually; 
and  of  this  quantity  about  one-half  are  cut- worms. 
We  need  not  stop  to  ask  whether  or  not  the  destruction 
of  these  will  pay  for  the  cherries  and  berries  eaten. 

Summing  up  the  work  of  our  birds  as  relates  to  the 
destruction  of  insects,  we  have  it  given  briefly  as  follows : 

"In  the  air  swallows  and  swifts  are  coursing  rapidly 
to  and  fro,  ever  in  pursuit  of  the  insects  which  consti- 
tute their  sole  food.  When  they  retire,  the  night  hawks 
and  whippoorwills  will  take  up  the  chase,  catching 
moths  and  other  nocturnal  insects  which  would  escape 
day-flying  birds.  Flycatchers  lie  in  wait,  darting  from 
ambush  at  passing  prey,  and  with  a  suggestive  click  of 
the  bill  returning  to  their  post.  The  warblers,  light, 
active  creatures,  flutter  about  the  terminal  foliage,  and 
with  almost  the  skill  of  a  humming-bird,  pick  insects 
from  the  leaf  or  blossom.  The  vireos  patiently  explore 
the  under  sides  of  leaves  and  odd  nooks  and  corners  to 
see  that  no   skulker  escapes.     The  woodpeckers,  nut- 


Il6  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

hatches,  and  creepers  attend  to  the  trunks  and  limbs, 
examining  carefully  each  inch  of  bark  for  insects'  eggs 
and  larvae,  or  excavating  for  the  ants  and  borers  they 
hear  within.  On  the  ground  the  hunt  is  continued  by 
the  thrushes,  sparrows,  and  other  birds  that  feed  upon 
the  innumerable  forms  of  terrestrial  insects.  Few 
places  in  which  insects  exist  are  neglected;  even  some 
species  which  pass  their  earlier  stages  or  entire  lives  in 
the  water  are  preyed  upon  by  aquatic  birds.  "* 

In  nearly  every  case  where  the  food  habits  of  our 
birds  have  been  carefully  studied,  we  find  that  the  good 
done  far  exceeds  the  possible  harm  that  might  be  in- 
flicted by  our  birds.  Allowing  twenty-five  insects  per 
day  as  an  average  diet  for  each  individual  bird,  and 
estimating  that  we  have  about  one  and  one-half  birds 
to  the  acre,  or  in  round  numbers  75,000,000  birds  in 
Nebraska,  there  would  be  required  1,875,000,000 
insects  for  each  day's  rations. 

Again  estimating  the  number  of  insects  required  to 
fill  a  bushel  at  120,000,  it  would  take  15,625  bushels  of 
insects  to  feed  our  birds  for  a  single  day,  or  2,343,750 
bushels  for  150  days.  These  estimates  are  very  low 
when  we  take  into  account  the  numbers  of  insects  that 
various  of  our  birds  have  been  known  to  destroy  in  a 
single  day.  For  example,  the  stomachs  of  four  chicka- 
dees contained  1,028  eggs  of  cankerworms.  Four 
others  contained  about  600  eggs  and  105  mature  females 
of  the  same  insect.  The  stomach  of  a  single  quail  con- 
tained loi  potato-beetles;  and  that  of  another  upwards 
of  500  chinch-bugs.     A  yellow-billed  cuckoo  shot  at  six 

♦Chapman  in  "  Bird  Life." 


BIRDS  117 

o'clock  in  the  morning  contained  forty-three  tent  cater- 
pillars. A  robin  had  eaten  175  larvae  of  Btbio,  which 
feed  on  the  roots  of  grasses,  etc. 

Birds,  like  all  other  animals,  feed  upon  that  food  which 
is  most  readily  obtained,  hence  the  insectivorous  kinds 
destroy  those  insects  which  are  most  numerous — the 
injurious  species. 


1.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  barnyard  fowls? 

2.  Does  it  pay  the  farmer  to  keep  fowls?     Why? 

3.  How  many  kinds  of  birds  have  we  in  the  state? 

4.  Can  you  give  a  reason  for  our  having  so  many  birds? 

5.  Are  the  birds  useful  enough  to  make  it  wise  to  protect  them '. 
Why? 

6.  Compare  the  food  habits  of  the  different  common  birds. 

7.  What  do  the  swimming  birds  eat? 

8.  Can  you  name  thirty  common  birds? 

9.  Account  for  the  nervous  actions  of  the  warblers. 


CHAPTER  IX 

OTHER  WILD  ANIMALS 

Besides  insects  and  their  relatives  and  the  birds, 
which  are  mentioned  on  the  foregoing  pages,  there  are 
still  other  kinds  of  wild  animals  to  be  met  with  in  the 
country.  Some  of  these  are  to  be  thought  of  only  as 
friends,  while  others,  on  account  of  the  way  in  which 
they  live  or  the  manner  of  treatment  which  they  give 
our  friends  already  spoken  of,  must  be  called  enemies. 
Then,  too,  their  relation  to  our  crops,  fruit-trees,  garden 
plants  and  other  growing  things,  must  be  taken  into 
consideration  before  we  can  settle  the  question  of 
friend  or  foe. 

Mammals. — The  animals  with  four  legs  that  have 
their  bodies  covered  with  hair  or  fur  are  very  different 
one  from  the  other.  They  also  vary  a  good  bit  in  size, 
as  well  as  in  their  food  habits  and  the  kind  of  places 
where  they  are  to  be  found. 

Some  of  them,  like  the  prairie  wolf  or  coyote  and 
foxes,  as  well  as  the  raccoon,  steal  our  chickens  and 
other  poultry.  The  wolves  sometimes  also  kill  sheep  and 
pigs,  and  by  this  means  become  quite  a  nuisance  and 
deserve  punishment.  In  some  parts  of  the  country, 
however,  we  are  told  that  where  these  wolves  have  been 
killed  off  the  jack-rabbits  have  increased  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  be  quite  harmful.  These  latter  animals 
destroy  our  trees  and  bushes  and  eat  large  quantities 

ii8 


OTHER  WILD  ANIMALS  I  I9 

of  grain  and  garden  truck.  So  it  is  difficult  to  decide 
just  what  is  the  right  thing  to  do,  since  the  jack-rabbit 
is  too  large  for  our  hawks  to  feed  upon. 

The  skunks  and  weasels,  as  well  as  the  mink,  also  kill 
our  poultry  whenever  their  accustomed  food  is  scarce, 
or  our  hen-houses  are  extra,  handy  for  them  to  get  into. 
Ordinarily,  however,  these  strong-scented  animals 
occupy  their  time  in  hunting  out  and  killing  and  eating 
different  kinds  of  mice,  rats,  and  even  rabbits,  all  of 
which  do  more  or  less  harm  by  destroying  grain  and 
other  products  of  the  farm. 

Besides  these  flesh-eating  forms  just  mentioned,  there 
are  still  others,  like  the  moles  and  shrews,  which  also 
destroy  harmful  forms,  like  the  "grubs  of  insects. 

Mice,  rats,  gophers,  squirrels,  chipmunks  and  their 
relatives,  the  rabbits,  porcupine,  beaver,  and  wood- 
chuck  are  all  more  or  less  injurious  to  vegetation  upon 
which  they  chiefly  feed.  But  many  of  these  animals 
also  have  other  habits  which  make  it  very  hard  for  us 
to  decide  just  what  would  be  the  best  thing  to  do  in  all 
cases. 

The  ground-squirrels  and  chipmunks  are  quite  expert 
catchers  of  grasshoppers  and  other  insects,  and  often 
destroy  large  numbers  of  these  troublesome  pests  each 
year.  Even  many  of  our  prairie  and  field  mice  have 
similar  habits,  while  others  must  be  thanked  for  destroy- 
ing large  quantities  of  the  seeds  of  weeds  and  other 
troublesome  plants. 

Here  again  the  birds  come  to  our  aid  and  assist  in 
keeping  things  balanced,  for  the  owls  make  mice  and 
other    small    rodents    their    chief   item    of    food.     The 


I20  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

larger  hawks  and  some  of  the  flesh-eating  mammals 
mentioned  above  keep  down  the  pocket-gophers  and 
prairie-dogs  as  well  as  the  smaller  rabbits. 

All  of  this  only  teaches  us  the  greater  necessity  for 
keeping  a  careful  watch  on  the  way  the  different  animals 
about  us  live,  if  we  wish  to -profit  by  their  existence — if 
we  would  learn  just  what  use  they  are  in  the  world. 

Reptiles  and  Batrachians. — Lastly,  but  by  no  means 
of  the  least  importance,  we  must  mention  the  turtles, 
snakes,  lizards,  toads,  frogs,  and  salamanders,  of  which 
there  are  quite  a  number  of  different  kinds. 

The  snakes  feed  on  mice,  ground-squirrels,  small 
gophers,  frogs,  and  toads,  besides  insects;  while  all  of 
the  other  kinds  of  these  animals  are  mostly  destroyers 
of  insects. 

There  is  much  in  the  lives  of  all  of  these  creatures 
that  would  be  new  and  of  interest,  as  well  as  of  value  to 
us,  if  we  only  took  the  time  to  study  and  find  out  about 
them. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  WEATHER  OF  THE  FARM 

Warm  Weather  and  Cold  Weather. — The  comfort 
and  happiness  of  man  and  beast  depend  very  much  upon 
how  cold  or  how  warm  the  weather  is;  and  even  the 
plants,  which  furnish  both  our  food  and  theirs,  cannot 
grow  until  the  sun  has  warmed  the  soil  which  feeds  their 
roots  and  the  air  which  bathes  their  leaves. 

How  the  Ground  is  Warmed. — The  great  furnace  from 
which  we  get  most  of  our  heat  is  the  sun.  It  sends  to 
us  little  waves  of  heat,  many  thousands  of  these  tiny 
waves  every  second ;  but  they  pass  so  easily  and  quickly 
through  the  air  that  they  have  little  effect  upon  it  on 
their  way  down;  but  they  do  warm  the  ground  upon 
which  they  fall,  for  they  cannot  get  through  that  so 
easily,  and  when  the  ground  gets  warm  it  soon  warms 
up  the  air  which  lies  upon  it. 

How  the  Ground  Warms  the  Air. — This  it  does  in 
two  ways:  in  the  first  place  the  bottom  of  the  atmos- 
phere actually  touches  the  ground  and  rests  upon  it  and 
is  warmed  by  it,  just  as  a  flat-iron  is  warmed  when  it  is 
set  on  the  stove ;  the  heat  creeps  slowly  up  from  the  hot 
griddle  of  the  stove  into  the  bottom  of  the  fiat-iron,  or 
from  the  warm  earth  into  the  lower  air.  This  process  is 
called  conduction.  Then  again,  the  earth  warms  the  air 
in  another  way;  if  you  hold  your  hand  near  the  ground 
when  it  has  been  well  heated  in  the  sunshine,  vou  will 


122  NEW    ELEMENTARY    AGRICULTURE 

feel  the  warmth  coming  to  your  hand  from  the  grotind. 
even  if  you  do  not  touch  it.  This  is  called  radiation; 
that  is,  the  heat  is  sent  forth  from  the  earth  in  little 
waves  much  like  those  which  come  down  from  the  sun; 
but  the  heat  waves  radiated  from  the  warm  soil  are 
mostly  stopped  before  they  get  very  high  up  into  the 
air,  and  so  the  air  is  warmed  by  them.  That  is  why  it 
is  cold  high  up  in  a  balloon ;  the  sun  is  shining  there  just 
as  much  as  it  is  at  the  surface  of  the  earth,  but  its 
waves  pass  by  on  their  way  down  and  do  not  warm  the 
air  much,  and  the  waves  coming  back  from  the  warmed 
earth  do  not  get  up  so  high,  but  mainly  warm  the  lower 
air  in  which  the  plants  and  trees  live  and  grow.  And  so 
the  earth's  atmosphere  acts  as  a  blanket  to  keep  the 
earth  warm  by  letting  in  the  heat  waves  from  the  sun 
more  readily  than  it  lets  out  the  heat  coming  back  from 
the  warmed  earth.  The  glass  which  is  put  over  a  hot- 
bed acts  in  much  the  same  way;  it  lets  the  sun's  heat 
come  in,  but  will  not  let  the  heat  arising  from  the  ground 
get  out,  and  so  the  plants  are  kept  warm.  If  the  earth 
had  no  atmosphere  it  would  not  get  very  warm,  even 
when  the  sun  was  shining  upon  it;  and  at  night,  what 
little  warmth  the  soil  had  received  from  the  sun  during 
the  day  would  be  quickly  lost,  and  the  ground  would 
become  intensely  cold.  Everything  would  be  quickly 
frozen  solid  as  soon  as  the  sun  sank  below  the  horizon. 

Warm  Days  and  Cool  Nights. — We  can  now  under- 
stand why  the  days  are  warmer  than  the  nights.  The 
earth  is  receiving  considerable  heat  from  the  sun  during 
the  day  and  losing  a  little  of  it  all  the  while  by  radiation 
out  through  the  atmosphere  into  cold  space    beyond. 


THE  WEATHER  OF  THE  FARM 


23 


During  the  night  the  supply  of  heat  from  the  sun  is  cut 
off,  while  the  loss  of  heat  from  the  earth  still  goes  on ;  so 
the  ground  gets  quite  warm  during  the  day  and  quite 
cold  at  night,  and  this  makes  the  lower  air  also  warm 
by  day  and  cold  by  night. 

The  ground  and  air  are  not  usually  warmest  in  the 
middle  of  the  day,  but  some  hours  later,  because  the  sun 
is  high  in  the  sky  for  several  hours,  both  before  and 
after  noon,  and  all  the  while  it  is  adding  to  the  earth's 
store  of  heat.  As  the  sun  gets  lower  in  the  western  sky, 
although  it  still  furnishes  some  heat  to  the  earth,  it 
does  not  give  enough  now  to  keep  up  even  the  little 
loss  of  heat  that  is  all  the  while  going  on;  and  so 
for  the  remainder  of  the  day  the  earth  gradually  cools 
off.  This  cooling  goes  on  all  night  until  just  before 
sunrise,  when  some  light  and  heat  begin  to  come  to  us 
again  over  the  eastern  horizon  from  the  sun.  It  is, 
therefore,  usually  warmest  about  two  or  three  hours 
after  noon  and  coolest  just  before  sunrise. 

Why  the  Sun  Seems  Hotter  when  High  in  the  Sky. 
— If  you  hold  a  tube  of  paper  A,  Fig.  50, 
so  as  to  point  towards  the  sun  when  it  is 
high  in  the  sky,  and  let  a  beam  of  sunlight 
pass  through  it  and  fall  upon  the  ground, 
it  will  make  a  little  round  spot  of  light,  B, 


Fig.  50. 


124  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

as  large  as  the  tube ;  this  is  the  amount  of  ground  which 
that  beam  of  sunHght  has  to  warm.  If  you  point  the 
same  tube  of  paper  at  the  sun  early  in  the  morning  when 
the  sun  is  low  in  the  sky,  and  let  the  beam  of  sunshine 
pass  through  it,  as  at  C,  it  will  now  fall  so  slanting  on  the 
ground  that  it  will  light  up  a  long  narrow  streak,  D; 
hence  this  beam  of  sunshine  has  more  ground  to  warm 
than  in  the  other  case  and  it  cannot  warm  it  so  fast; 
besides,  it  has  had  farther  to  come  through  the  air 
than  the  other  beam  has;  because  it  came  slanting,  and 
thus  has  lost  more  of  its  heat  before  reaching  the 
earth.  "We  sometimes  say  that  the  sun  is  hotter  at 
noon  than  it  is  in  the  morning,  but  what  we  really  mean 
is  that  it  heats  the  ground  faster. 

Protection  from  Frost. — We  have  seen  that  the  air 
itself  is  a  blanket,  through  which  the  heat  of  the  earth 
escapes  but  slowly;  but  if  the  air  is  filled  with  clouds 
it  is  a  much  better  blanket,  only  in  that  case  it  both 
keeps  the  sun  from  heating  the  earth  so  hot  by  day  and 
it  also  prevents  the  heat,  which  the  earth  has  received 
during  the  day,  from  escaping  so  fast  at  night.  For 
this  reason,  in  cloudy  weather  the  days  are  not  usually 
very  hot  nor  the  nights  very  cold;  but  when  the  skies 
are  cloudless  we  get  warm  days  and  cold  nights. 

That  is  why  we  must  look  out  for  a  frost  in  the  spring 
or  autumn,  if  it  appears  that  the  skies  will  be  clear  dur- 
ing the  night.  In  winter  we  do  not  think  much  about 
it  because  we  have  no  tender  plants  out  of  doors  to  freeze ; 
and  in  summer  we  are  not  afraid  because  we  do  not  think 
it  can  get  cold  enough  during  the  night  to  freeze,  any- 
how ;  but  in  the  spring  when  the  garden  and  orchard  are 


THE  WEATHER  OF  THE  FARM  I25 

starting  into  growth,  or  in  the  autumn  before  the  fruits 
and  vegetables  are  all  cared  for,  we  look  anxiously  at 
the  sky  on  cool  evenings  and  wonder  whether  there  will 
be  a  frost.  If  it  promises  to  be  cloudy  we  are  not  afraid, 
for  we  can  trust  the  blanket  of  clouds  to  keep  the  earth 
from  getting  too  cold;  but  if  not,  we  may  think  best  to 
cover  the  tender  plants  with  sheets  or  newspapers,  or 
we  may  bmld  a  smudge  on  the  windward  side  of  the 
orchard  and  let  the  smoke  drift  slowly  over  it  all  night. 
The  newspapers  or  the  smoke  serve  the  same  purpose 
as  the  clouds  would  have  done ;  they  keep  the  heat  from 
escaping  so  fast  from  the  ground  and  from  the  lower  air. 
There  is  another  protection  from  frost  which  is  almost 
as  good  as  clouds  or  smoke,  and  that  is  a  brisk  wind. 
Down  close  to  the  ground  is  where  there  is  the  most  danger 
of  freezing,  for  it  is  the  ground  that  first  gets  cold  and  that 
cools  the  lower  air;  just  as  it  was  the  ground  that  first 
got  warm  in  the  sunshine  and  so  warmed  the  lower 
air.  When  the  ground  begins  to  cool  off  rapidly  in  the 
night  it  is  the  lower  air  in  contact  with  it  that  gets 
chilled  the  most,  rather  than  the  air  in  the  higher  tree- 
tops;  and  so  it  is  the  smaller  trees  and  plants  that  are 
most  in  danger  of  freezing.  Now,  if  the  wind  is  blow- 
ing, it  tends  to  mix  the  warmer  air  above  with  the  cooler 
air  close  to  the  ground,  with  the  result  that  neither  of 
them  gets  cold  enough  to  freeze  the  plants.  It  is  for  this 
same  reason  that  there  is  often  frost  in  the  valleys  when 
there  is  none  on  the  hills;  the  higher  ground  is  more 
exposed  to  whatever  wind  there  is.  The  wind  brings 
warmer  air  to  the  hills  and  not  to  the  valleys; 
besides  that,  any  cold  air  that  forms  close  to  the  ground 


126 


NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


on  the  hills,  if  it  is  not  blown  away  by  the  wind,  is 
apt  to  flow  down  the  hillsides,  somewhat  as  water  would 
do,  because  it  is  heavier  than  warm  air.  From  eith'r 
or  both  of  these  causes  the  valley  may  be  cold  enough 
for  a  frost  when  the  higher  ground  is  not. 


Fig.  51.     The  sun's  path  is  highest  and  longest  in  summer. 


The  Heat  of  Summer  and  the   Cold  of  Winter. — 

There  are  two  reasons  why  it  is  hot  in  summer  and  cold 
in  winter. 

In  summer  the  sun,  as  shown  in  Fig.  51,  rises  in  the 
northeast,  is  high  in  the  sky  at  noon,  and  sets  in  the 
northwest.  In  winter,  on  the  other  hand,  it  rises  in  the 
southeast  and  passes  low  across  the  southern  sky  to 
set  in  the  southwest.     Its  heating  effect  is,   therefore, 


THE  WEATHER  OF  THE  FARM 


27 


greater  in  summer  than  in  winter,  because  its  rays  are 
more  nearly  vertical;  the  summer  is  hotter  than  the 
winter  for  the  sanle  reason  that  it  is  hotter  at  noon  than 
it  is  early  in  the  morning.  But  there  is  a  further  rea- 
son ;  a  glance  at  the  figure  will  show  that  in  summer  the 
sun  has  a  long  journey  to  make  across  the  sky  from 
sunrise  to  sunset;  it  rises  early  and  sets  late.  In  the 
winter,  on  the  contrary,  its  daytime  course  is  short  and 
its  night  journey  long.  During  a  summer  day  more 
heat  is  received  from  the  sun  than  can  be  given  off  dur- 
ing the  night,  and  the  weather  gets  hotter  and  hotter; 
while  during  the  winter  the  short  days  and  long  nights 
have  a  contrary  effect,  and  the  earth  and  air  get  very  cold. 
Warm  Spells  and  Cold  Spells. — But  the  heat  and 
cold  of  day  and  night  and  of  summer  and  winter  are  not 
the  only  changes  that  we  feel ;  we  have  warm  spells  and 


Fig.  52.     A  warm  wave. 


12S  NKW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE. 

cold  Spells  of  a  few  days  each,  following  one  another,  all 
the  year  around.  We  shall  understand  this  better 
after  learning,  in  Chapter  XI,  something  about  how  the 
winds  blow;  but  to  begin  with  let  us  look  at  the 
weather  map  for  March  27  to  30,  1895,  Fig.  52,  which 
will  show  how  a  wave  of  warm  weather  often  passes 
across  the  country  from  west  to  east.  On  the  27th 
there  was  a  belt  of  unusually  warm  weather  stretching 
from  the  Pacific  Ocean  across  to  the  Rocky  Mountains ; 
the  next  day  this  warm  wave  had  moved  to  the  east- 
ward of  the  mountains ;  the  next  day  to  the  Mississippi 
River ;  and  by  the  fourth  day  it  had  reached  the  Atlantic 
coast.  Such  warm  waves  are  continually  traveling 
across  the  country,  and  the  weather  will  be  warmer 
than  usual  both  day  and  night  for  several  days  while 
one  of  these  waves  is  passing.  In  the  same  way  cool 
waves,  or  very  cold  waves,  sometimes  pass  across  the 
country  from  west  to  east. 


1.  Why  do  the  sunbeams  warm  the  ground  first,  rather  than 
the  air? 

2.  The  moon  has  little  or  no  atmosphere:  what  kind  of  climate 
must  it  have  ? 

3.  Give  two  reasons  why  the  sun  heats  faster  at  noon  than 
before  or  after?  Why,  then,  do  the  earth  and  air  still  continue 
to  get  warmer  for  a  few  hours  after  noon? 

4.  On  what  day  of  the  year  does  the  sun  get  highest  in  the  sky? 
Why,  then,  is  it  hotter  in  July  and  August  than  in  June? 

5.  On  what  day  is  the  sun  lowest?  Why,  then,  is  it  colder  a 
month  or  two  later  than  this  ? 

6.  Give  two  ways  in  which  nature  often  protects  plants  from 
frost.     How  may  the  farmer  do  it  ? 


CHAPTER  XI 


THE  WIND 


In  late  years  scientists  have  found  out  a  great  deal 
about  the  wind  and  where  it  conies  from  and  where  it  is 
going.  They  have  found  that  the  wind  generally 
blows  in  a  great  round  eddy,  sometimes  half  as  big  as 
the  United  States,  around  a  center  known  as  a  "low." 
The  map,  Fig.  53,  shows,  for  example,  by  the  direc- 
tion of  the  arrows,  how  the  wind  was  blowing  on  the 
morning  of  March  29,  1895,  You  will  see  that  at  that 
time  there  was  a  region  marked  "low"  near  the  middle 
of  the  United  States  and  two  regions  marked  "high," 
one  in  the  east  and  one  in  the  west,  and  you  will  see  by 


Fig.  53.    How  the  wind  blows. 
129 


I30  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

the  arrows  that  the  wind  was  moving  away  from  the 
highs  and  in  toward  the  low  from  all  sides.  Now, 
since  there  is  not  room  enough  for  so  much  air  to  crowd 
into  a  small  space,  it  has  to  circle  around  it;  and  finally 
it  rises  up  into  the  higher  regions  of  the  atmosphere  and 
so  gets  out  of  the  way.  These  great  eddies  are  some- 
what like  the  little  whirlwinds  which  we  often  see,  only 
they  are  very  much  larger  and  the  wind  blows  toward 
them  and  around  them  in  a  gentle  breeze,  instead  of  a 
violent  wind.  In  the  center  of  the  low  it  is  generally 
calm  because  here  the  air  is  rising  gently  upward  instead 
of  blowing  along  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

What  Makes  the  Wind  Blow. — The  air  in  a  low  is 
not  so  dense  as  it  is  elsewhere;  if  we  should  look  at  a 
barometer,  which  is  an  instrument  for  measuring  the 
density  of  the  air,  we  should  find  that  in  a  low  the 
mercury  stood  low  down  in  the  tube  of  the  barometer, 
indicating  that  the  air  is  not  very  dense;  that  is  why 
these  regions  are  called  "lows."  They  are  regions  of 
low  barometer  or  low  pressure  of  the  air,  while  in  the 
highs  the  air  is  more  densely  packed  and  the  barometer 
stands  high.  This  greater  density  of  the  air  is  repre- 
sented in  the  map  by  packing  the  arrows  closer  together. 

We  may  understand  why  the  air  tries  to  b?ow  away 
from  these  highs  where  it  is  crowded,  and  towards  the 
lows  where  it  is  less  dense,  by  thinking  how  a  crowd  of 
people  will  act  if  some  portion  of  the  crowd  is  less  packed 
than  elsewhere;  they  will  surge  that  way  until  the 
gi'eater  crowding  somewhere  else  is  relieved.  So  the  air 
moves  away  from  the  highs  and  toward  the  lows  and  that 
motion  of  the  air  is  the  wind.     It  would. soon  make  the 


THE  WIND  131 

low  as  densely  packed  with  air  as  the  high  if  it  did  not, 
as  stated  above,  rise  into  the  higher  regions  of  the 
atmosphere,  leaving  the  low  still  a  region  of  low  pres- 
sux'e.  The  winds  continue  to  blow  towards  it  for 
days  at  a  time;  commonly  the  region  of  low  pressure 
moves  slowly  eastward  across  the  country  and  the 
winds  keep  blowing  towards  it  from  all  sides  as  it  moves 
along.  For  instance,  this  low  shown  in  Fig.  53,  moved 
on  eastward  during  the  next  few  days  towards  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean,  the  winds  all  the  time  blowing  towards  it 
from  all  sides  and  circling  around  it  just  as  they  were 
doing  when  it  was  in  the  center  of  the  United  States, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  53. 

Why  the  Wind  Changes. — We  have  seen  that  the 
direction  of  the  wind  depends  on  where  the  low  is, 
towards  and  around  which  the  winds  are  moving.  At 
a  place  just  east  of  the  low,  as  you  will  see  by  the  arrows 
on  the  map,  the  wind  will  generally  be  blowing  from  the 
south  or  southeast;  if  you  are  on  the  west  side  of  the  low, 
on  the  contrary,  the  wind  will  blow  from  the  north  or 
northwest;  if  you  are  just  in  the  low,  very  likely  there 
will  be  no  wind  at  all.  We  can  see  now  why  the  wind  so 
often  changes  its  direction.  If,  for  example,  there  were 
a  low  just  west  of  us  some  day  we  should  probably  have 
a  south  wind ;  then  as  the  low  moved  eastward  and  cov- 
ered the  region  where  we  were,  the  wind  would  die  down 
to  a  calm. ;  when  the  low  had  gone  by  and  was  east  of  us  the 
wind  would  begin  to  blow  from  the  north.  Now.  suppose 
that  the  low  does  not  move  over  us,  but  that  it  passes 
by,  somewhat  to  the  north  of  us.     You  will  see  by  the 


132  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

map  that  the  direction  of  the  wind  just  on  the  south  side 
of  the  low  is  apt  to  be  from  the  west.  In  this  case  then 
the  wind  will  not  die  down  to  a  calm,  but  will  gradually 
change  its  direction;  it  will  blow  from  the  south  while 
the  low  is  still  to  the  west  of  us,  will  change  into  the 
west  while  the  low  is  passing  by,  and  will  finally  settle 
in  the  north  or  northwest  when  the  low  has  gone  on 
farther  east. 

The  Cause  of  Brisk  Winds. — The  force  with  which 
the  wind  blows  depends  on  whether  the  air  in  the  low 
is  very  low  in  density  or  only  moderately  low.  If  the 
barometer  stands  very  low  it  shows  that  the  air  is  quite 
rare  and  in  that  case  we  may  expect  the  winds  which 
blow  towards  it  to  be  quite  brisk,  or  even  violent.  In 
summer  the  air  is  often  not  much  more  dense  in  the 
highs  than  it  is  in  the  lows,  and  then  there  are  only 
gentle  breezes;  in  March  and  April  the  lows  are  more 
apt  to  be  especially  low  and  to  cause  high  winds;  but 
such  lows  are  liable  to  come  along  at  any  time  and  give 
us  brisk  winds  while  they  are  passing. 

South  Winds  Bring  Warm  Weather. — We  can  now 
understand  the  behavior  of  the  warm  wave  shown  in 
Fig.  52.  Let  us  compare  this  map  with  the  map  Fig.  53. 
The  low  shown  in  Fig.  53  was  moving  eastwardly  across 
the  United  States;  it  took  from  March  28th  to  April  2d, 
five  days  in  all,  to  go  from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic. 
Fig.  53  shows  how  far  it  had  gone  by  March  29th.  It 
was  in  South  Dakota  and  Nebraska,  with  warm  south- 
erly winds  blowing  up  on  the  east  side  of  it;  it  is 
just  here  on  the  east  side  of  the  low  that  the  warm  area 


THE  WIND  133 

occurs,  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  52,  on  March  29th,  and  we 
can  easily  understand  how  these  southerly  winds  would 
cause  warm  weather,  since  they  bring  to  us  the  air  from 
the  warmer  southern  regions;  and  we  see,  too,  that 
if  the  low  moved  eastward,  as  lows  do,  it  would 
naturally  cause  south  winds  to  blow  in  states  farther 
and  farther  east  and  the  warm  wave  to  move  eastward, 
as  the  map  Fig.  52  shows  that  it  did. 

The  hot  winds  which  sometimes  blow  across  the 
western  states  from  the  south  for  days  at  a  time  are 
generally  caused  by  a  low  which  moves  very  slowly 
eastward,  and  so  keeps  the  winds  blowing  in  almost  the 
same  direction  for  a  long  tinie. 

Cold  Waves  and  Blizzards. — On  the  west  side  of  a 
low,  as  Fig.  53  shows,  northerly  winds  generally  prevail 
and  they  naturally  make  the  weather  colder,  because 
they  come  from  the  colder  regions  to  the  north  of  us. 
Thus  while  a  warm  wave  generally  occurs  on  the  east  side 
of  a  low  and  moves  eastward  with  it,  a  cool  wave,  some- 
times indeed  a  very  cold  wave,  occurs  on  the  west  of  the 
low  and  follows  it  across  the  country.  If,  as  often  hap- 
pens, this  cold  north  wind  brings  with  it  a  fall  of  snow, 
it  may  amount  to  a  severe  storm,  or  "blizzard.  "  When 
the  north  wind  dies  out  and  the  cloudy  skies  clear  up 
we  are  apt  to  have  one  or  two  very  cold  nights,  because, 
as  explained  in  Chapter  X,  clear  skies,  although  they 
give  warm  days,  tend  to  produce  cold  nights.  The 
lowest  temperatures  that  we  get  come  usually  on  some 
clear  night  after  a  blizzard  has  passed  which  has  brought 
down  from  the  far  North  a  mass  of  cold  air,  and  left  it 


134  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

to  get  still  colder  under  a  cloudless  sky  at  night.  If  a 
low,  followed  by  one  of  these  cold  waves,  moves  far 
southward,  instead  of  pursuing  its  more  ordinary  path 
eastward,  it  may  do  much  damage  by  carrying  the  cold 
weather  far  into  the  Southern  states,  where  the  more 
tender  vegetation  is  unaccustomed  to  such  low  tem- 
peratures. 


1.  In  what  direction  was  the  wind  blowing  in  Nebraska  on 
March  29,  1895?     Why? 

2.  In  what  direction  was  it  blowing  in  Wisconsin? 

3.  Why  would  the  direction  of  the  wind  in  Wisconsin  probably 
change  in  a  day  or  two  ?  What  change  in  temperature  would 
probably  result? 

4.  Why  are  March  winds  apt  to  be  high  winds? 

5.  What  winds  generally  bring  on  a  cold  spell? 

6.  Why  does  it  commonly  get  still  colder  after  the  storm  dies 
out? 

7.  In  what  direction  is  the  wind  blowing  this  morning?  In 
what  direction  from  you  do  you  think  the  barometer  stands  low? 
Where  does  it  probably  stand  high? 

8.  Is  the  wind  very  brisk  to-day,  or  not?  Do  you  think, 
then,  that  the  barometer  is  very  low  somewhere  near  you? 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


CHAPTER    XII 

CLOUDY  AND  RAINY  WEATHER 

If  ^'e  watch  the  steam  spouting  from  a  tea-kettle  we 
shall  notice  that  just  where  it  comes  from  the  spout  it 
is  quite  invisible ;  a  little  farther  out  it  becomes  a  cloud 
of  visible  steam.  '  If  the  kettle  were  of  glass  we  should 
see  that  the  steam  inside  it  does  not  look  like  steam  at 
all,  but  i$  as  transparent  and  invisible  as  the  air  itself. 
In  fact,  it  is  a  gas  like  the  air;  it  is  the  water  of  the  kettle 
converted  into  a  gas  by  the  heat  of  the  stove.  Let  us 
call  it  "vapor"  while  it  is  hot  enough  to  be  an  invisible 
gas,  and  "  steam  "  when  it  has  cooled  and  become  visible. 
Now,  this  steam  is  no  longer  a  gas,  but  is  composed  of 
tiny  drops  of  water,  and  the  only  reason  that  they  do 
not  fall  to  the  floor  at  once  is  because  they  are  so  small 
that  they  fall  but  slowly.  At  first  they  are  drifted  up- 
ward by  the  currents  of  hot  air  rising  from  the  stove; 
probably  they  do  finally  settle  to  the  floor,  or  to  the 
walls  of  the  kitchen. 

How  the  Clouds  are  Formed. —  The  atmosphere  al- 
ways contains  invisible  watery  vapor  like  that  in  the  tea- 
kettle ;  it  has  been  evaporated  from  the  ponds  and  streams 
and  from  the  damp  soil  by  the  sun's  heat,  just  as  the 
vapor  has  been  formed  from  the  water  in  the  tea-kettle 
by  the  heat  of  the  fire ;  only  not  so  fast,  because  the  ponds 
do  not  get  so  hot.  And  just  as  the  vapor  in  the  kettle 
may  cool  into  steam,  so  the  vapor  in  the  air  may  cool 
to  form  clouds. 

13s 


136  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

Clouds,  then,  are  not  vapor,  but  are  composed  of  tiny 
drops  of  water  just  like  steam ;  they  may  be  drifted  up- 
ward by  ascending  currents  of  air,  or  they  may  slowly 
settle  to  the  earth.  If  they  do  the  latter  we  call  it  a  fog, 
and  we  can  see  the  tiny  drops  of  water  drifting  about  us, 
and  settling  to  the  earth;  if  the  drops  are  larger  they 
fall  faster  and  we  call  it  a  mist  or  rain.  Rain-drops  are 
just  like  the  drops  of  water  of  which  clouds  are  com- 
posed, only  they  are  larger  and  fall  more  quickly  to  the 
earth. 

Snow,  Hail,  and  Sleet. — If  the  air  is  very  cold  up 
where  the  moisture  is  condensing,  it  raay  form  flakes  of 
snow  instead  of  drops  of  rain ;  that  is,  it  may  condense  into 
tiny  crystals  of  ice,  which  arrange  themselves  in  loose, 
branching  masses,  just  as  the  vapor  of  a  living-room 
produces  feathery  forms  when  it  condenses  against  a 
cold  window-pane.  If  drops  of  rain  are  formed  high  in 
the  air  they  may  start  for  the  earth  as  ordinary  rain- 
drops, but,  by  falling  through  a  cold  layer  of  air  on  their 
way  down,  be  frozen  into  little  balls  of  ice  called 
sleet.  Sometimes  these  balls  are  larger  and  are  called 
hailstones,  which  are  often  made  up  of  harder  and 
softer  layers  of  ice,  as  if  they  had  fallen  from  a  great 
height  and  had  passed  through  several  different  layers 
of  cold  air,  which  have  added  to  the  hailstone  layers 
of  hard  and  soft  ice. 

Dry  Air  and  Moist,  or  Sultry,  •Air. —  The  air  always 
contains  some  invisible  watery  vapor ;  if  it  contains  very 
much  of  it  on  a  summer  day  we  say  that  the  air  feels 
"sultry."  It  feels  uncomfortable  to  us,  and  the  reason 
is  this:  when  we  perspire  and  the  sweat  evaporates  it 


CLOUDY  AND  RAINY  WEATHER  I  37 

produces  a  sensation  of  coolness ;  while  if  the  air  is  sultry, 
the  sweat  cannot  evaporate  because  the  air  is  already 
full  of  vapor  and  cannot  take  up  any  more.  Although 
it  feels  uncomfortable  to  us  it  is  good  for  the 
plants,  because  it  does  not  dry  them  out  so  fast.  The 
time  when  the  plants  suffer  is  when  the  air  is  not  only 
hot,  but  also  dry ;  that  is, when  it  contains  but  little  watery 
vapor ;  then  the  water  is  rapidly  drawn  out  of  the  leaves 
of  the  plants  to  supply  the  air  with  vapor  and  the  leaves 
wither,  and  perhaps  the  plants  are  killed.  The  "hot 
winds,"  which  are  sometimes  so  trying  to  the  crops  in 
the  Western  states,  are  dangerous,  not  so  much  because 
they  are  hot  winds  as  because  they  are  dry  winds. 

What  Makes  It  Rain? — We  have  seen  that  clouds 
are  formed  by  the  cooling  of  the  invisible  vapor  of  the  air 
till  it  condenses  into  little  floating  drops  of  water;  and 
that  rain  is  only  these  same  clouds  when  cooled  so  fast 
that  the  drops  are  too  big  to  float,  and  so  fall  quickly 
to  the  earth.  It  always  rains  when  moist  air  is  suffi- 
ciently cooled.  This  cooling  may  be  brought  about 
in  various  ways. 

First,  On  the  east  side  of  a  low,  the  winds  blowing 
from  the  south  or  southeast  bring  vapor-laden  air  from 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  or  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean;  as  this 
moist  air  moves  northward  into  a  cooler  clime  it  is 
likely  to  condense  into  clouds,  and  perhaps  to  fall  as 
rain.  When  a  low  is  approaching  us  from  the  west, 
therefore,  we  often  get  cloudy  or  rainy  weather. 

Second.  After  a  low  has  passed,  the  wind,  as  we  have 
seen,  commonly  blows  from  the  north;  this  chills  the  air 
and  often  produces  rain  or  snow  on  the  west  side  of  a 


138  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

low,  especially  in  winter.  If  the  wind  has  been  blowing 
from  the  south,  on  the  east  side  of  the  low,  bringing 
moist  air  with  it,  then  when  the  low  has  passed  and  the 
wind  changes  into  the  north,  the  cold  air  will  blow 
along  the  surface  of  the  earth,  driving  in  under  the  warm, 
moist  air,  and  bringing  down  its  moisture  as  rain  or 
snow.  If  it  does  not  rain  when  a  low  is  approaching 
from  the  west  it  often  does  rain  or  snow  as  soon  as  the 
low  has  passed  and  the  wind  changes  into  the  north. 

Third.  We  have  seen  that  in  the  center  of  a  low  the 
air  is  generally  rising,  because  it  is  not  so  dense  and 
heavy  there  as  it  is  elsewhere;  as  it  rises  it  cools,  and  as 
it  cools  its  vapor  is  condensed  into  clouds  or  rain. 

We  see  then  that  in  and  around  a  low  is  the  place  to 
look  for  rainy  weather.  Lows  are  apt  to  bring  clouds 
and  rain;  highs,  on  the  other  hand,  usually  bring  clear 
skies  and  fair  weather. 


1.  Why  do  not  clouds  usually  form  close  to  the  earth? 

2.  What  makes  the  earth  feel  sultry? 

3.  Why  do  we  feel  the  heat  more  in  sultry  weather?     Why  do 
the  plants  thrive  in  such  weather?     Why  does  it  rain  so  easily? 

4 .  Give  three  ways  in  which  the  air  may  be  cooled  to  form  rain. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
STORMS 

When  a  low  moves  across  the  country  it  is  apt,  as  we 
have  seen,  to  bring  stormy  weather  of  various  sorts — 
rain,  snow,  and  wind.  A  low  is,  therefore,  often  called 
a  storm-center.  But  there  are  several  kinds  of  storms 
which  a  low  may  bring  that  are  of  a  more  damaging 
sort,  such  as  thunder-storms,  hail-storms,  and  torna- 
does. 

Thunder-Storms. — Thunder-storms  usually  occur  on 
the  southeast  side  of  a  low;  here  the  air  is  warm  and 
moist,  and  is  blowing  from  the  south  or  southeast  on  its 
way  to  the  low.  It  is  overlaid  by  a  layer  of  cooler,  heavier 
air,  which  lies  upon  it  like  a  blanket  and  presses  down 
upon  it.  The  air  underneath  tries  to  escape  upward; 
presently  it  makes  a  break,  tears  a  big  rent  in  the  air- 
blanket  above  it,  and  pours  up  through  it.  The  warm  air 
rushing  upward  and  the  cool  air  coming  downward  to 
take  its  place  are  what  cause  the  thunder-storm.  Let  us 
see  how  they  will  act ;  before  the  storm,  the  air  has  felt 
sultry — that  is,  moist  and  hot — and  the  wind  has  blown 
from  the  south  or  southeast ;  it  has  made  a  break  through 
the  upper  air  and  started  a  thunder-storm  somewhere 
to  the  west  of  us.  Often  we  may  see  the  beginning  of 
the  storm  as  a  "thunder-head" — that  is,  a  tall,  towering 
mass  of  cloud,  spreading  out  at  the  top  like  a  sheaf  of 
oats — or  sometimes  flowing  out  on  one  side  only,  looking 

139 


I40  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

like  the  horn  of  a  blacksmith's  anvil.  The  storm  drifts 
towards  us,  generally  from  the  west,  because  the  upper 
air  in  which  the  rent  has  been  made  usually  moves  east- 
ward, even  though  the  air  at  the  earth's  surface  is  blow- 
ing the  other  way.  As  the  storm  comes  near  us  we  see 
a  confused  mass  of  dark  clouds  rolling  and  tumbling 
towards  us  like  a  huge  roll  of  dirty  cotton,  being  rolled 
and  tumbled  over  by  the  warm  air  rising  and  the  cold 
air  coming  down,  just  as  the  roll  of  cotton  would  if  you 
roiled  it  between  your  hands,  one  hand  moving  up  and 
the  other  down.  We  say  ''there  is  wind  in  that  cloud," 
or  rather  behind  it;  for  we  have  learned  that  such  a 
looking  cloud  has  a  blast  of  cool  wind  rushing  out  from 
under  it,  driving  the  dust  before  it,  and  taking  the  place 
of  the  warm,  sultry  air  which  has  been  blowing  towards 
the  storm  cloud.  About  the  same  time  big  drops  of  rain 
begin  to  fall.  These  come  from  the  moist  air  which  has 
been  carried  aloft  and  cooled;  often  they  are  carried 
so  high  by  the  strong  upward  draft  of  air  that  they  are 
frozen  into  hailstones.  Thunder  and  lightning  usually 
come  with  such  a  storm,  because  the  violent  rubbing 
and  mixing  together  of  warm  and  cold  air  produce  elec- 
tricity, which  makes  the  flashes  of  light  and  tears  the 
air  asunder  so  that  it  falls  together  again  with  a  loud 
noise.  The  sound  waves  also  rebound  from  neighboring 
walls  of  cloud  and  so  are  re-echoed  in  a  long-continued 
rumble.  After  the  storm  has  passed  on  to  the  east,  we 
may  often  see  its  west  side  lighted  by  the  rays  of  the 
afternoon  sun  and  spanned  by  a  rainbow;  for  it  is  still 
raining  from  the  cloud,  and  the  sxmlight  shining  on  the 
distant  r?indrops  is  broken  up  into  the  rainbow  colors. 


STORMS  141 

Tornadoes. —  A  thunder-storm  may  be  many  miles  in 
length,  and  may  travel  for  hundreds  of  miles  before  it 
dies  out ;  the  opening  in  the  layer  of  upper  air  is  a  long, 
narrow  rent,  perhaps  several  miles  long  and  a  few 
miles,  or  less  than  a  mile,  wide,  and  it  advances  broad- 
side across  the  country.  But  sometimes  the  warm, 
lower  air  bores  its  way  up  through  a  small  round  open- 
ing no  larger  than  a  farm,  instead  of  through  a  long, 
narrow  rent;  up  through  this  opening  the  warm  air 
rushes  like  the  draft  of  air  up  a  chimney :  in  that  case  it 
becomes  a  tornado  instead  of  an  ordinary  thunder- 
storm. As  the  air  is  drawn  in  at  the  base  of  this  chim- 
ney-like opening,  it  begins  to  revolve  like  an  ordinary 
dust  whirlwind,  only  with  terrific  violence;  as  this  whirl- 
ing column  of  moist  air  ascends,  it  cools  and  becomes  a 
column  of  cloud;  it  spreads  out  funnel-shaped  at  the 
top  and  may  sometimes  be  seen  moving  slowly  across 
the  country.  Its  lower  end,  where  it  touches  the  earth, 
revolves  so  fast  that  it  tears  everything  to  pieces  in  its 
path.  A  tornado,  or  a  "cyclone"  as  it  is  popularly 
called,  differs  from  an  ordinary  thunder-storm,  mainly 
in  its  small  size  and  its  violent  rotation.  Usually 
thunder  and  lightning,  and  rain  or  hail,  accompany  a 
tornado,  but  its  destructive  power  is  chiefly  due  to  the 
enormous  speed  with  which  it  revolves.  Like  thunder- 
storms, they  occur  in  hot,  sultry  weather;  they  approach 
from  some  westerly  direction,  and  are  caused  by  a 
strong  updraft  of  moist,  warm  air. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

WEATHER  PREDICTIONS 

It  is  by  knowing  where  the  lows  and  highs  are  on  any 
particular  day,  that  the  Weather  Bureau  is  able  to  tell 
something  about  the  probable  weather  of  the  next  day 
or  two.  Weather  observers  are  stationed  throughout 
the  United  States  and  Canada,  who  take  observations 
every  morning  and  night  at  the  same  hour;  they  note 
how  their  thermometers  and  barometers  stand,  how 
the  wind  is  blowing,  and  whether  the  sky  is  clear  or 
cloudy.  All  these  observations  are  at  once  telegraphed 
to  Washington,  where  a  map  is  drawn  showing  exactly 
what  the  weather  was  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and 
especially  where  the  highs  and  lows  were  situated  at 
the  time.  Since  we  have  learned  about  how  fast  and  in 
what  direction  the  lows  and  highs  are  in  the  habit  of 
traveling,  it  is  possible  to  tell  about  where  they  will  be 
by  the  next  day,  and  so  to  tell  what  kind  of  weather 
they  will  probably  bring  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 
But  this  cannot  be  told  with  entire  certainty,  because 
a  low  may  travel  a  little  faster  or  a  little  slower  than 
usual,  or  it  may  swerve  somewhat  from  its  ordinary 
direction,  in  which  case  the  weather  predictions  will, 
of  course,  prove  incorrect.  A  careful  record  is  kept 
of  the  predictions  made  by  the  Weather  Bureau, 
and  whether  they  came  true  or  not ;  it  shows  that  about 
five  predictions  out  of  six  prove  to  be  correct.     It  is  not 

14a 


WEATHER    PREDICTIONS  I43 

possible,  however,  to  tell  much  about  the  weather  for 
more  than  a  day  or  two  in  advance,  because  in  three  or 
four  days  a  low  may  get  to  quite  a  different  part  of  the 
country  from  what  was  expected. 

Weather  Maps. — The  maps  printed  by  the  Weather 
Bureau  every  day  are  distributed  over  the  country,  and 
posted  in  public  places,  and  the  pupil  will  do  well  to 
examine  them  from  day  to  day,  if  he  has  the  opportunity, 
and  learn  to  understand  them  and  to  see  for  himself 
how  the  weather  areas  travel  across  the  country,  and 
what  kind  of  weather  they  carry  with  them.  He  will 
not  always  find  the  lows  and  highs  as  well  defined  as 
they  are  in  Fig.  53,  in  which  case  the  wind  will  not  be 
blowing  as  regularly  toward  them  as  it  is  in  the  figure, 
but  he  will  find  that,  in  general,  the  direction  of  the  wind 
and  the  distribution  of  clouds  and  rain  occur  about  as 
has  been  explained  in  these  chapters  on  the  weather. 

Almanac  Weather. — The  various  almanacs  often  un- 
dertake to  tell  in  advance  what  the  weather  will  be 
throughout  the  entire  year,  but  these  predictions  are 
not  much  better  than  guesses.  Of  course  anybody  can 
tell  something  about  the  probable  weather  of  any  sea- 
son. We  know  from  experience  about  what  part  of  the 
year  is  hot,  or  cold,  or  rainy,  or  windy;  but  it  is  plain 
that  the  almanac  could  not  safely  predict  that  rain,  or 
warm  weather,  or  high  winds  would  come  on  a  certain 
day,  because  it  could  not  come  to  all  parts  of  the  country 
on  the  same  day;  at  least  it  does  not,  as  the  weather 
maps  show.  A  storm  center  or  a  wave  of  warm  weather 
moves  across  the  country  and  takes,  as  a  rule,  several 
days  or  a  week  to  travel  from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic. 


144  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

When  it  is  warm  in  one  part  of  the  country  it  is  cold  in 
another ;  or  it  rains  in  the  East  and  is  clear  in  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley.  If  the  almanac  prediction  is  made  rather 
indefinite  and  only  means  "about  this  time  look  for 
rain, "  very  likely  a  storm  will  come  near  enough  to  that 
time  to  make  the  prediction  seem  to  come  true.  But 
no  one  has  yet  found  a  way  to  tell  beforehand  when  it 
will  rain,  or  be  hot  or  cold,  in  a  particular  state  or  city, 
except  by  knowing  from  telegraphic  reports  where  the 
lows  and  highs  are  at  the  time. 

The  Moon  and  the  Weather. — It  is  a  common  no- 
tion that  the  moon  and  the  planets  influence  the  weather ; 
but  scientific  men  have  never  been  able  to  find  any  good 
evidence  that  they  do.  For  instance,  many  people 
believe  that  the  weather  is  likely  to  change  about  the 
time  the  moon  changes ;  that  is  when  the  moon  becomes 
new,  or  full,  or  at  the  quarter;  and  they  say,  "I  have 
often  noticed  that  it  does.  "  And  that  is  probably  true, 
because  the  moon  changes  so  often,  and  the  weather 
changes  so  often,  that  very,  very  frequently  they  would 
change  together ;  but  the  only  way  to  find  out  whether 
there  was  any  connection  between  the  two  would  be  to 
keep  careful  records,  for  a  number  of  years,  of  all  the 
changes  of  the  moon,  and  of  all  the  changes  of  the 
weather,  and  then  to  see  whether  the  changes  of  weather 
and  the  changes  of  the  moon  came  on  the  same  day 
more  often  than  they  came  on  different  days.  Scien- 
tific men  have  done  this  very  carefully  for  many  years, 
and  they  find  that  the  weather  changes  just  as  often 
when  the  moon  does  not  change  as  it  does  when  the 
moon  does  change.     They  have  not  been  able  to  find  any 


WEATHER  PREDICTIONS  I45 

connection  whatever  between  the  weather  and  the  plan- 
ets; heat  and  cold,  rain  and  sunshine,  wind  and  calm, 
come  without  any  reference  to  the  heavenly  bodies,  so 
far  as  careful  records  show,  but  they  come  according  to 
laws  of  nature  that  we  are  beginning  to  understand ;  laws 
of  nature  given  by  the  bountiful  Creator  in  order  that 
"seed-time  and  harvest,  summer  and  winter,  may  not 
fail." 


1.  Why  is  it  usually  cool  after  a  thunderstorm? 

2.  Why  does  it  often  hail  in  such  a  storm? 

3.  Would  you  fear  a  funnel-shaped  cloud  seen  in  the  west? 
In  the  east? 

4.  How  can  the  Weather  Bureau  tell  how  the  wind  is  likely  to 
blow  to-morrow? 

5.  Why  are  they  sometimes  disappointed?  How  often  do 
their  predictions  fail  ? 

6.  Why  can  they  tell  better  what  will  happen  to-morrow  than 
day  after  to-morrow  ? 

7.  Does  the  Weather  Bureau  predict  the  same  kind  of  weather 
for  to-morrow  in  all  parts  of  the  country?  Does  the  almanac? 
Is  the  weather  alike  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States  on  the 
same  day? 

8.  Why  can  a  low  barometer  bring  a  change  of  temperature 
while  the  moon  cannot  ? 


CHAPTER  XV    • 

THE  SOIL 

By  the  word  soil  we  mean  what  is  commonly  called 
" dirt, "  or  "earth.  "  When  it  is  very  wet  and  sticky  we 
speak  of  it  as  "mud,"  and  when  very  dry  it  is  carried 
about  from  place  to  place  or  blown  about  by  the  wind 
in  the  form  of  "  dust.  " 

How  Soil  is  Made. — In  some  places  where  a  deep 
hole  or  a  railroad  "cut"  has  been  dug  a  very  striking 
change  in  the  nature  of  the  walls  of  the  cut,  as  it  goes 
deeper  into  the  ground,  can  be  seen.  At  the  top  there 
will  be  a  layer  of  very  fine  particles  of  earth,  which  is 
darker  in  color  than  the  rest  and  which  contains  many 
little  roots  of  grass  and  trees,  and  also  little  open  places 
or  holes  where  bugs  and  worms  have  made  their  nests 
or  crawled  about.  Below  this  there  will  be  found  earth 
which  is  made  up  of  the  same  very  small  particles,  but 
which  is  lighter  in  color  and  packed  together  much 
more  closely,  and  which  may  have  in  it  large  grains  of 
sand  or  little  pebbles.  Under  this  will  be  seen  a  deep 
layer  of  sand,  the  particles  of  which  get  larger  and  larger 
as  the  cut  goes  deeper  and  deeper  into  the  groimd  until 
the  sand  gets  so  coarse  that  it  is  called  "  gravel.  "  If  the 
cut  goes  down  into  this  gravel,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
little  pebbles  which  are  found  in  the  upper  part  of  it  keep 
getting  larger  the  deeper  it  goes,  until  finally  great  stones, 
and  at  last  solid  rock,  are  reached.     These  different  kinds 

146 


THE    SOIL  147 

of  earth  are  not  in  layers  which  are  sharply  divided 
from  each  other,  but  the  change  is  a  gradual  one,  from 
finer  to  coarser  particles  of  rock,  all  the  way  down. 

This  gives  us  an  idea  as  to  how  the  soil,  which  now  lies 
on  the  top  of  the  ground,  was  made.  A  very,  very  long 
time  ago  the  top  of  the  ground  was  all  solid  rock,  like 
that  which  we  now  find  down  deep  in  it.  But  little  by 
little  the  cold  weather  of  the  winters  and  the  warm  air 
and  rains  of  the  summers  caused  it  to  crack  and  large 
stones  would  break  off.  Then  these  stones  in  their 
turn  were  broken  up  into  smaller  ones,  partly  by  the 
freezing  in  winter  of  the  water  that  would  get  into  the 
small  cracks  in  them — just  as  a  jug  or  bottle  will  break 
if  it  is  filled  with  water  and  the  water  allowed  to  freeze — 
and  partly  by  the  decay  and  crumbling  caused  by  the 
action  of  the  air  and  moisture  on  the  material  of  which 
the  rocks  were  made,  just  as  a  piece  of  iron  which  is 
left  out  in  the  damp  air  soon  gets  rusty  and  begins  to 
crumble  off  at  the  edges.  So  the  stones  kept  getting 
broken  up  into  smaller  and  smaller  pieces,  until  at  last 
they  were  no  bigger  than  the  fine  sand  or  clay  which  we 
find  near  the  top  of  the  ground  now.  Since  it  is  the 
weather  and  its  changes  which  cause  the  rock  to  break 
up  in  this  way,  the  action  is  called  "weathering,"  and 
the  fine,  earthy  material  which  is  made  in  this  way 
is  sometimes  called  "  rock- waste.  "  This  breaking  up 
of  the  rocks  is  going  on  all  the  time  wherever  the  big 
rocks  are  found  on  or  near  the  top  of  the  ground,  but  in 
most  places  the  weathering  has  gone  on  for  so  many 
thousands  of  years  that  the  large  rocks  are  now  buried 
deep  under  the  rock- waste ,  which  has  been  made  from 


148  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

those  rocks  which  used  to  lie  on  the  top  of  the  ground. 
It  is  only  where  the  wind  has  blown  the  fine  rock- 
waste  away,  or  where  running  water  has  washed  it  down 
to  some  lower  place  as  fast  as  it  was  made,  that  the 
large  stones  or  solid  rock  can  still  be  seen. 

Rock-Waste  is  the  principal  part  of  all  soil,  but  it  is 
not  generally  called  soil  until  it  has  become  mixed  with 
a  considerable  amount  of  vegetable  mold,  or  decayed 
or  rotten  plant  roots,  stems,  and  leaves.  Often  these 
decayed  plants  get  mixed  in  with  the  sandy  or  gravelly 
rock-waste  before  it  gets  broken  up  fine  enough  to  be 
called  soil,  because  moss  and  other  small  plants  like  it 
begin  to  grow  on  the  mother  rock  itself,  and  when  they 
die  in  the  winter  they  fall  down  into  the  cracks  and 
decay  there.  This  decaying  vegetable  matter  often 
helps  to  hasten  the  breaking-up  of  the  rock  particles 
against  which  it  lies,  by  causing  them  to  decay  and 
crumble  more  quickly,  so  that  when  these  rotted  plants 
get  in  among  the  pebbles  they  are  much  more  easily 
weathered  down  to  fine  rock- waste.  As  this  goes  on 
year  after  year,  more  and  more  of  the  decayed  plants, 
or  vegetable  mold,  gets  mixed  with  the  rock- waste, 
until  finally  the  fine  particles  of  rock  are  all  so  small  and 
so  closely  mixed  with  the  decayed  roots  and  other  parts 
of  plants  that  we  can  no  longer  see  them  separated  from 
one  another.  This  mixture  of  very  fine  rock-waste  and 
vegetable  mold  is  the  soil  which  we  see  all  about  us. 
It  is  the  decayed  vegetable  matter  in  it  which  gives  it  its 
dark  color,  and  generally  the  more  of  this  matter  there 
is  in  a  soil  the  darker  it  will  be. 

Kinds  of  Soil. — If  all  the  rock  from  which  soil  has  been 


THE  SOIL  I4Q 

produced  had  been  the  same  in  the  first  place,  we  would 
find  almost  the  same  kind  of  soil  all  over  the  earth. 
But  this  was  not  the  case.  In  some  places  the  rock 
was  sandstone  and  when  the  weathering  had  broken 
this  up,  and  it  had  been  changed  into  soil,  there  was 
formed  a  loose,  sandy  soil  through  which  water  can 
settle  very  easily,  and  which  does  not  get  muddy  and 
sticky  when  it  is  wet.  This  kind  of  soil  is  frequently 
called  a  "light"  soil.  Then  in  other  places  the  rock  was 
limestone,  and  when  this  was  changed  into  soil  the  parti- 
cles formed  were  very  fine  and  not  in  grains  like  sand, 
but  more  powdery,  like  flour.  This  kind  of  soil,  which  is 
known  as  clay,  packs  together  when  it  gets  wet,  and  is 
very  sticky  and  muddy.  Water  cannot  settle  through 
it  at  all  easily,  because  the  tiny  particles  stick  so  close 
together  and  leave  no  open  spaces  between  them,  such 
as  there  are  in  sandy  places.  This  kind  of  a  soil  is  usually 
called  a  "heavy"  one.  Other  kinds  of  rock  produce 
still  other  kinds  of  soil,  but  these  two  are  by  far  the  most 
common  ones.  Some  soils  are  very  sandy  and  contain 
little  or  no  clay,  while  others  are  very  clayey  and  have 
very  few  sand  grains  in  them,  and  there  are  all  grades 
between  these  two.  If  the  soil  is  too  sandy  it  is  not 
good  for  plants  because  the  water  from  rains  can  settle 
away  from  it  so  easily  and  it  then  dries  out  and  the 
plants  die  for  want  of  water.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
the  soil  is  almost  all  clay,  water  cannot  soak  down  into 
it,  and  when  it  rains  the  rain-water  all  runs  away  on  the 
surface  so  that  as  soon  as  it  stops  raining  there  will  be 
but  little  water  in  the  soil  for  the  plants  to  get. 
Then,  too,  there  are  other  varieties  of  soil  caused  by 


150  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

the  fact  that  in  some  places  the  soil  lies  just  where  it 
was  formed  from  the  rocks  and  is  only  changed  by  the 
things  that  grow  on  it,  while  in  other  places  the  wind 
blows  away  the  lighter  parts  of  the  soil,  or  water  washes 
away  the  finer  parts.  Then,  again,  the  dust  which  is 
blown  away  from  one  place  may  be  dropped  in  another 
and  mix  with  the  soil  already  there,  or  produce  great 
beds  of  soil  which  was  once  formed  from  rock  in  another 
part  of  the  country ,  or  even  in  another  country.  A  very 
large  part  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  state  of  Nebraska, 
for  example,  is  covered  with  soil  of  this  kind,  in  some 
places  more  than  a  hundred  feet  deep,  which  many  years 
ago  was  carried  in  here  by  the  very  strong  winds  that 
blew  then.  In  a  similar  way,  water  may  carry  soils,  or 
parts  of  soils,  from  one  place  to  another.  It  is  easy  to 
notice  how,  after  a  heavy  rain,  when  the  water  in  a 
stream  or  river  is  running  very  swiftly,  it  is  very  muddy 
with  the  soil  that  it  is  carrying  away,  and  how,  after  the 
rain  stops  and  the  water  runs  more  slowly,  it  drops  its 
load  of  mud,  or  soil,  in  some  place  where  something 
stops  the  swift  current  of  the  stream,  and  gets  clear 
again.  Soils  which  still  lie  in  the  place  where  they  were 
formed  from  the  mother-rock  are  called  "local"  soils. 
Those  which  have  been  brought  in  from  some  other  place 
by  wind  or  water,  or  in  any  other  way,  are  called  "trans- 
ported" soils.  Transported  soils  are  generally  more 
easily  cultivated  and  better  for  crops,  because  it  is  the 
finer,  lighter  parts  of  the  soil,  especially  the  vegetable 
mold,  which  is  apt  to  be  carried  away  by  the  wind  or 
water,  and  this  is  the  best  part  of  the  soil  for  crops  to 
grow  in. 


THE  SOIL  151 

Why  Plants  Grow  in  the  Soil. —  In  order  that  plants 
may  grow  they  must  have  food,  just  the  same  as  animals 
must.  But  the  kind  of  food  that  plants  need  is  different 
from  that  which  animals  eat.  A  very  large  part  of  the 
food  of  plants  is  air  and  water.  They  can  take  in  the  air 
that  they  need  through  their  leaves,  but  the  water  they 
get  they  have  to  take  in  through  their  roots.  So  there 
must  be  a  place  for  the  roots  to  get  water.  This  is  one 
of  the  uses  of  the  soil.  When  it  rains  the  water  falls 
on  the  ground  and  settles  into  the  soil.  The  soil  parti- 
cles get  wet,  and  the  little  open  spaces  between  them 
get  filled  with  water,  which  stays  there  a  long  time,  and 
the  plant  roots  running  through  the  soil  find  the  water 
there  which  they  need  to  drink.  If  the  soil  were  still 
in  the  form  of  rock,  the  water  could  not  soak  into  it,  but 
would  run  off  from  the  surface  into  a  river  somewhere; 
or  if  the  soil  were  not  so  fine  and  did  not  have  this  power 
of  holding  water  in  its  tiny  open  spaces  the  rain-water 
would  settle  down  through  it  very  rapidly  and  be  last 
below,  so  that  in  either  case  the  plant  roots  could  not 
find  it.  What  really  happens,  though,  is  that  when  the 
rain  falls  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  the  water  creeps 
along  from  one  soil  grain  to  another,  until  the  rain-water 
has  all  been  soaked  into  the  ground,  just  as  when  you  dip 
one  end  of  a  piece  of  cloth  into  some  water  you  can  see  the 
water  go  creeping  along  the  cloth  until  it  is  wet  to  some 
distance  away  from  where  it  touches  the  water.  Then 
when  a  plant  root  grows  into  this  moist  ground  and 
begins  to  drink  up  the  water  it  finds  there,  as  fast  as 
the  water  in  one  place  is  taken  away  by  the  little  root 


152  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

some  more  comes  creeping  along  from  the  wetter  groimd 
near  by  (just  as  when  you  light  the  lamp  and  the  oil  is 
burned  from  the  upper  end  of  the  wick  some  more  oil 
comes  creeping  along  up  the  wick  from  thread  to 
thread  to  take  the  place  of  that  which  has  been  burned), 
so  that  the  plant  root  can  keep  drawing  the  water  it 
needs  without  having  to  grow  away  from  the  place 
where  it  begins  to  drink  in  the  water.  So  the  soil  feeds 
water  to  the  plant  root  just  as  the  wick  in  the  lamp 
feeds  oil  to  the  flame. 

But  the  plants  need  other  food  besides  air  and  water. 
In  order  to  grow  strong  stems  and  form  fruit  or  grain, 
they  have  to  have  certain  kinds  of  mineral  matter,  the 
same  as  animals  have  to  have  certain  kinds  of  mineral 
matter  in  their  food  in  order  to  build  up  their  bones  and 
other  parts  of  their  bodies.  The  kinds  of  mineral  matter 
which  plants  need  are  found  in  most  of  the  mother- 
rocks  from  which  the  soil  was  formed.  But  the  only 
way  the  plants  can  get  this  mineral  food  is  from 
the  water  which  comes  in  through  the  plant's  roots. 
Now,  of  course,  the  rocks,  even  though  they  con- 
tain the  right  minerals  for  the  plant  food,  will  not 
dissolve  in  the  water,  and  so  cannot  be  carried  into 
the  plant  through  its  roots.  It  is  only  after  these  rocks 
have  been  broken  up  and  changed  by  the  weather,  and 
more  especially  by  the  action  of  the  decaving  vegetable 
mold,  that  the  part  of  them  which  plants  want  for  food 
will  dissolve  in  the  water  in  the  soil,  and  so  go  in  with 
it  into  the  plant's  roots.  Hence,  rock-waste ,  even  when  it 
contains  the  right  kinds  of  mineral  matter,  cannot  give 


'      THE  SOIL  153 

it  to  plants  for  food.  It  is  only  after  it  has  been  changed 
to  soil  that  it  will  furnish  food  for  the  crops. 

How  Soil  is  Made  Rich. — By  a  "rich,"  or  "fertile," 
soil  we  mean  one  that  will  furnish  plenty  of  plant  food 
to  crops  that  are  to  grow  upon  it.  For  this,  two  things 
are  necessary:  first,  that  there  shall  be  plenty  of  the  right 
kind  of  mineral  matter  in  the  rock-waste  of  which  the  soil 
is  made;  and  second,  that  there  shall  be  plenty  of  the 
decayed  vegetable  mold  to  help  change  the  rock- 
waste  into  the  right  condition  so  that  it  can  dissolve 
in  the  soil  water.  The  decayed  vegetable  matter  also 
helps  to  furnish  food  to  plants,  since  it  contains  itself 
some  of  the  material  which  was  once  a  part  of  a  plant 
and  which  the  new  plants  will  need  for  food. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  whenever  a  crop  grows  on  a  piece 
of  soil  it  takes  away  part  of  the  plant  food  that  was  in 
the  soil.  And  if  the  crop  is  cut  off  and  carried  away 
from  the  field,  the  soil  will  lose  that  much  of  its  plant 
food.  So  it  often  happens  that  after  a  great  many  crops 
have  been  grown  upon  a  certain  field,  so  much  of  the 
plant  food  has  been  carried  away  that  there  is  not 
enough  left  to  properly  feed  more  plants,  and  the  soil  has 
lost  its  richness,  or  fertility.  Such  a  soil  is  called 
"poor,"  "barren,"  or  "unfertile."  The  only  way  in 
which  a  "barren"  soil  can  be  made  to  grow  crops  again 
is  by  adding  to  it  some  more  plant  food.  Things  that 
are  added  to  soil  to  increase  the  amount  of  plant  food 
in  it,  and  so  make  it  more  fertile,  are  called  "fertilizers.  " 
There  are  two  kinds  of  fertilizers:  first,  those  which  are 
plant  foods  themselves  and  are  put  directly  into  the 


154  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

soil  where  the  plant  roots  can  get  them;  and  second, 
those  which  will  act  on  some  more  of  the  rock-waste  in 
the  soil  and  change  it  into  a  proper  condition  so  that  it 
can  be  used  as  food  by  plants.  This  second  kind  of 
fertilizers  is  mostly  refuse  plant  substances  like  straw, 
corn-stalks,  barn-yard  manure,  etc.,  which,  when  put 
into  the  soil,  will  decay  and  so  add  to  the  supply  of  vege- 
table mold  in  the  soil.  The  first  kinds  mentioned  are 
mostly  mineral  matter  which  have  been  prepared  in  the 
right  form  for  the  plant  roots  to  take  up,  and  which  furnish 
a  supply  of  food  to  plants  as  soon  as  they  are  put  into  the 
groimd.  They  generally  must  be  bought,  and  cost 
more  than  the  second  kind  described;  but  these  latter 
are  much  slower  in  their  action,  and  it  is  often  several 
years  before  any  large  increase  in  the  richness  of  the 
soil  on  which  they  are  placed  can  be  seen. 

Why  Must  Soil  be  Cultivated. — Some  soils  which 
contain  plenty  of  mineral  plant  food  are  barren  because 
they  do  not  have  water  enough  in  them  to  supply  the 
plants.  This  may  be  because  not  enough  rain  falls  on 
them,  or  because  the  rain  that  falls  is  not  held  in  the 
soil  long  enough.  Of  course,  if  too  little  water  falls 
as  rain  this  cannot  be  helped  except  by  bringing  in  more 
water  from  a  river,  or  well  (that  is,  by  irrigation).  But 
if  the  soil  receives  enough  rain-water  and  does  not  hold 
it,  it  can  be  made  to  do  so  by  proper  cultivation. 
Stirring  the  soil  and  breaking  up  the  chunks  of  earth 
make  it  finer,  and  so  better  able  to  hold  moisture.  It 
is  generally  true  that  the  finer  the  soil  the  better  it 
will   hold    moisture,   so  cultivating  any  soil  makes  it 


THE  SOIL  155 

better  fitted  to  supply  water  to  plants.  It  also  lets  air 
into  the  soil,  which  helps  to  decay  the  vegetable  matter 
and  to  change  the  mineral  matter  into  plant  food. 
And  further  than  this,  it  kills  the  useless  weeds  which 
would  otherwise  use  the  moisture  and  plant  food  which 
ought  to  be  saved  for  the  useful  crops. 


1.  Picture  the  earth  before  there  was  soil. 

2.  Which  appeared  first,  soil  or  vegetation? 

3.  How  many  years  has  it  taken  to  produce  our  soil,  do  you 
suppose  ?     Is  soil  still  being  formed  ? 

4.  Account  for  the  deep  soil  of  the  valley  or  lowland,  and 
the  shallow  soil  of  the  hillside.  Ascertain  the  depth  of  the  soil 
in  your  locality. 

5.  What  part  have  the  earth-worm,  ant,  and  all  burrowing 
animals  taken  in  the    history  of  soil-making? 

6.  Show  how  the  death  of  plants  and  animals  contributes  to 
the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

7.  Which  is  better  economy,  to  burn  stubble,  or  to  plow  it 
under  ? 

8.  Why  are  some  streams  usually  clear,  and  other  streams 
more  or  less  muddy  ? 

9.  What  is  meant  by  humus,  loam,  sub-soil,  weathering? 

10.  What  is  the  object  of  "rotating  crops"?  What  is  meant 
by  soil  "wearing  out"  ? 

11.  If  we  burn  plants  or  vegetation  of  any  kind,  some  ashes 
will  be  left.  These  ashes  are  called  the  "mineral  matter"  of  the 
plant,  and  they  consist  of  potash,  lime,  sodium,  and  other  min- 
erals. Where  did  these  minerals  come  from,  and  how  did  they 
find  their  way  into  the  tissues  of  the  plant? 


CHAPTER  XVI 

DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  OF  THE  FARM 

There  are  four  kinds  of  domestic  animals  which  are 
very  useful  to  mankind :  the  horse  as  a  beast  of  burden, 
the  pig  for  its  flesh,  the  cow  for  its  flesh  and  milk,  and 
the  sheep  for  its  flesh  and  wool. 

Man  by  his  higher  intelligence  has  appropriated  to 
his  own  use,  whether  rightfully  or  not,  these  lower 
animals.  He  should,  therefore,  strive  to  understand 
their  ways  so  that  they  can  be  made  still  better  and 
more  useful  to  him.  In  this  chapter  we  shall  endeavor 
to  learn  something  about  these  animals  in  the  past, 
how  they  have  been  improved  under  man's  control, 
how  they  differ  in  characteristics,  and  how  they  can 
best  be  cared  for  to  make  them  most  useful. 

For  information  concerning  the  appearance  of  animals 
before  the  coming  of  man ,  we  must  go  to  the  geologist. 
He  examines  those  parts  of  the  earth's  crust  which  were 
formed  at  different  periods  and  finds  remains  of  animals 
which  inhabited  the  earth  during  those  periods.  In  the 
earliest  formations  of  the  soil  he  finds  low  forms  of  life, 
such  as  animals  without  backbones,  like  oysters.  In 
later  formations  the  animals  become  more  complex, 
developing  finally  into  the  wonderful  organism  that  we 
have  in  our  domestic  animals  to-day. 

The  Horse. — The  earliest  trace  of  the  horse  shows 
him  to  have  been  about  as  large  as  a  medium-sized  dog. 

156 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  OF  THE  FARM  I  57 

In  certain  beds  of  rock  in  Wyoming  and  New  Mexico, 
there  has  been  discovered  the  skeleton  of  a  horse  about 
sixteen  inches  high  with  four  complete  toes  on  the  front 
foot  and  three  behind.  On  each  toe  was  a  horny  mate- 
rial called  hoof.  With  the  four  toes  in  front  there  was 
also  found  a  small  splint  bone,  or  rudimentary  toe, 
showing  that  the  horse  first  had  five  toes.  The  teeth 
were  sharp  like  those  of  a  monkey,  instead  of  broad  and 
fiat  as  in  horses  to-day.  This  horse  lived  about  three 
million  years  ago.  He  inhabited  swampy  ground. 
The  feet  of  a  modern  rhinoceros  are  very  similar  to  the 
feet  of  this  early  horse.  These  two  animals  were  then 
quite  alike.  When  horses  took  to  higher  and  harder 
groimd  most  of  the  weight  of  the  animal  was  thrown 
upon  the  middle  toe,  which  in  later  generations  became 
larger  and  larger  and  the  outer  toes  smaller  and  smaller. 
If  an  organ  is  not  used,  the  flow  of  blood  in  that  part  is 
lessened,  and  the  organ  becomes  smaller.  The  first  and 
fifth  toes  disappeared,  then  the  second  and  fourth. 
The  skeleton  of  our  modern  horse  shows  the  presence  of 
two  splint  bones  between  the  knee  and  fetlock  joint. 
These  bones  are  the  rudiments  or  last  traces  of  what 
were  once  toes.  All  horses  have  splint  bones,  but  these 
are  not  considered  blemishes  until  they  become  enlarged 
on  account  of  being  bruised. 

Our  modern  horse,  then,  has  but  one  toe,  and  he  walks 
on  its  very  end.  A  large,  horny  encasement,  called  hoof, 
has  been  developed  to  protect  the  tender  tissues.  If  the 
horse  is  driven  on  hard,  stony  roads  the  hoof  gradually 
wears  off  and  he  becomes  foot-sore.  Iron  shoes  are 
tacked  on  to  protect  the  hoof. 


158  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

During  past  ages  the  feet  and  legs  of  the  horse  have 
lengthened  considerably.  His  heel  behind  we  call  the 
hock  joint;  in  front  it  is  the  knee  joint.  That  part  of 
the  leg  between  the  knee  and  fetlock  corresponds  to  the 
palm  of  your  hand,  that  between  the  hock  and  rear  fet- 
lock (or  ankle)  the  sole  of  your  foot.  The  fore  fetlock 
corresponds  to  the  joint  where  your  finger  joins  the 
hand.  As  the  legs  lengthened  it  became  necessary  for 
the  neck  also  to  lengthen  so  that  the  horse  could  reach 
to  the  ground  for  food. 

When  man  came  upon  the  earth  the  horse  was  about 
the  size  of  a  small  pony,  with  long,  shaggy  hair  and 
large  coarse  head.  Carvings  have  recently  been  found 
in  a  cave  in  France  where  early  cave  men  lived,  which 
represent  such  a  horse  with  a  string  attached  to  the 
head,  showing  that  it  was  in  those  very  early  times  a 
beast  of  burden.  Most  horses,  however,  were  wild 
during  those  early  times  and  a  few  are  still  undomes- 
ticated. 

There  were  five  different  types  of  wild  horses,  all 
found  in  Europe  and  Asia,  and  these  are  the  ancestors 
of  our  domestic  horses.  That  type  of  wild  horse  called 
Tangun,  or  the  piebald  horse,  inhabited  the  high  pla- 
teau of  Thibet  in  Central  Asia.  They  were  about  the 
size  of  our  Shetland  ponies  of  to-day.  It  is  said  their 
hair  was  about  four  inches  long,  white  in  color  with  large 
bay  spots.  These  horses  were  protected  by  mountains 
and  remained  unmolested  for  years.  They  also  remained 
unmixed  with  other  wild  horses.  It  is  thought  the 
Aryans  hrst  used  these  horses  in  their  conquests  about 
three  thousand  five  hundred  years  ago.     They  were  well 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  OF  THE  FARM  J  59 

suited  for  riding  in  war,  because  they  were  strong  ana 
active  for  so  small  an  animal.  The  Tangun  was  not 
only  fleet  and  enduring,  but  also  intelligent.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  most  of  our  modern  circus  horses  are  de- 
scendants of  the  Tanguns. 

The  Bay  Horse. — Just  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea  there 
early  existed  a  wild  bay  horse.  The  people  there,  the 
Tartars,  called  these  horses  Tarpans.  One  of  the  early 
Tartars  has  given  this  description  of  them. 

"They  form  large  herds  which  are  subdivided  into 
smaller  troops,  each  troop  or  company  headed  by  a 
stallion.  Each  of  the  great  divisions  is  headed  by  a 
sultan  stallion.  Each  company  moves  forwa^  d  over  the 
steppes  in  lines,  the  leader,  who  keeps  continually  on 
the  watch  for  enemies,  in  front.  If  danger  is  scented, 
one  goes  forward  to  reconnoiter.  If  he  discovers  real 
danger  he  makes  a  sharp,  shrill  neigh,  blows  with  his 
nostrils,  and  the  whole  herd  gallops  away,  the  mares  and 
colts  ahead,  and  the  stallions  behind.  If  a  wolf  or  bear 
is  met,  the  leader  stallion  rises  on  his  haunches  and 
strikes  with  his  fore  feet  with  great  force.  He  usually 
kills  the  enemy.  If  he  should  be  worsted,  another 
stallion  takes  his  place,  and  if  successful  is  declared 
champion  of  the  herd.  If  there  is  a  large  pack  of 
wolves,  the  herd  forms  in  a  mass  with  the  young  colts  in 
the  center,  the  stallions  attacking  in  a  body.  " 

We  do  not  know  when  the  bay  horses  were  domesti- 
cated, but  as  early  as  2000  B.  C,  the  Aryan  people, 
mounted  on  these  horses,  overran  and  conquered  Egypt. 
They  were  later  introduced  into  Arabia,  where,  under 
the  care  of  the  Arabs,  they  became  renowned.     These 


l6o  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

horses  were  rather  small  in  size  and  bay  in  color  with 
black  manes  and  tails.  They  possessed  strong,  fine 
bones  and  hard  muscles  and  tendons.  They  were  fleet 
and  very  enduring. 

The  Dun  Horse. — From  a  point  just  north  of  the 
Caspian  Sea,  extending  east  to  the  borders  of  China, 
there  early  existed  what  was  called  the  dun  horse. 
They  were  low  and  long  in  body,  with  slender  but  strong 
legs.  The  hair  on  the  fetlock  was  heavy,  as  was  also  the 
mane  and  tail.  They  also  had  a  peculiar  black  strip 
extending  along  the  back  from  mane  to  tail  and  cross 
bars  on  the  knee  and  hock  joints.  Such  markings  are 
occasionally  found  on  horses  to-day,  which  is  proof  that 
they  have  some  of  the  blood  of  the  original  dun  horses. 

They  were  about  fourteen  hands  (56  inches)  high, 
and  were  noted  for  their  intelligence.  The  Shetland 
pony  and  our  western  mustangs  and  Indian  ponies  are 
probably  descendants  of  the  dun.  The  latter  were  intro- 
duced into  America  by  the  early  Spaniards. 

The  White  Horse. — This  horse  probably  inhabited 
both  Europe  and  Asia.  He  was  larger  than  the  horses 
already  described,  more  massive  and  compact  in  build. 
He  was  only  about  fourteen  hands  high,  but  was 
heavy.  When  domesticated  this  horse  was  not  used  to 
any  extent  in  war.  Being  white  in  color  he  was  sacred 
to  the  people,  and  an  object  of  worship  in  their  religion. 

Black  Horse  of  Flanders. — This  horse,  inhabiting 
north  central  Europe,  was  the  largest  of  all  wild  horses. 
This  was  probably  because  of  the  abundant  supply  of 
food  provided  in  that  section.  He  was  probably  larger 
than  any  of  our  modern  horses.     All  of  our  heavy  draft 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  UF  THE  FARM 


l6l 


breeds  have  the  blood  of  this  black  horse  of  Flanders,  as 
he  was  called.  He  had  a  large  head,  bristles  around  the 
mouth,  short,  thick  neck,  heavy  shoulders,  broad,  thick 
body,  strong  legs  and  feet,  and  heavy  mane  and  tail. 

These  different  races  of  wild  horses  blended  together 
are  the  ancestors  of  our  modern  horses.  Our  horses 
to-day  are  of  all  colors  because  of  a  mingling  of  these 
different  types. 

Modern  Horses. — Horses  are  divided  into  three  gen- 
eral classes :  draft,  coach,  and  light  or  roadster  horses. 

The  principal  breeds  of  draft  horses  ir  America  are 
the  English  Shire,  Clydesdale,  and  Percheron. 

Draft  Type. — All  draft  breeds  possess  certain  quali- 
ties in  common.  They  are  large  in  size,  weighing  from 
1,500  to  2,100  pounds.     They  have  rather  short,  broad 


Fig.  54.  The  draft  horse  on  the  left  is  a  Percheron  stallion  weigh- 
ing 2,100  lbs.  The  coach  horse  in  the  middle  is  a  German  coach  or 
Oldenburg  stallion  weighing  1,600  lbs.  The  roadster  on  the  right  is  a 
Kentucky  saddle-horse. 


l62  NEW    ELEMENTARY    AGRICULTURE 

heads;  short,  thick  necks;  broad,  deep  chests  and 
shoulders;  broad,  short,  well-muscled  backs,  broad  hips, 
short,  strong  legs,  and  good-sized  feet. 

A  horse  with  a  man  on  his  back  can  pull  a  heavier 
load  on  a  level  pull  than  he  can  without  such  a  burden, 
because  the  extra  weight  of  the  man  makes  him  cling 
to  the  ground  better.  Horses  often  slip  back  when 
pulling  hard  because  they  have  not  sufficient  weight  to 
make  their  feet  cling  to  the  ground.  So  a  certain 
amount  of  weight  is  needed  in  draft  horses.  Then 
horses  with  rather  short  legs  can  pull  more  on  a  hard 
road  than  horses  with  long  legs,  because,  as  with  a  pry 
under  a  rock,  more  power  can  be  exerted  if  the  weight 
is  near  the  lower  end  of  the  pry.  But  if  the  ground  is 
soft,  like  plowed  ground,  horses  with  short  legs  tire 
quicker,  so  the  best  length  of  the  legs  will  depend  upon 
the  kind  of  work  done. 

The  English  Shire. — As  the  name  implies,  this  breed 
of  horses  was  developed  in  England.  It  is  our  largest 
breed.  Like  all  draft  breeds,  it  is  supposed  to  contain 
much  of  the  blood  of  the  black  horse,  already  described 
under  wild  horses.  During  the  earlier  history  of  Eng- 
land this  horse  was  used  in  war.  Cattle  in  those  days 
were  used  for  farm  work.  Before  the  invention  of  gun- 
powder men  fought  with  sword  and  spear.  They  wore 
heavy  armor  plates  to  protect  themselves.  There  was 
so  much  metal  to  carry  that  horses  with  great  size  and 
strength  were  needed.  Later  when  fire-arms  were  intro- 
duced, lighter  and  more  active  horses  were  found  to  be 
superior.  Then  it  was  that  these  heavy  English  horses 
were  put  into  use  as  draft  horses. 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  OF  THE  FARM  163 

In  England  the  roads  are  quite  level  and  smooth,  so 
these  heavy,  compact,  low-down  horses  are  most  satis- 
factory for  the  carting  that  has  to  be  done  in  their  cities. 

The  English  shires  are  sometimes  chestnut  or  sorrel 
in  color.  Bay  and  brown  are  also  quite  common. 
They  often  have  a  white  stripe  in  the  face  and  always 
have  long  hair,  called  feather,  on  the  fetlock  joints. 
These  horses  are  somewhat  slow  of  motion,  but  are  faith- 
ful when  put  to  a  heavy  pull.  They  have  large,  strong 
legs  and  feet,  which  is  a  desirable  characteristic  in  draft 
horses. 

The  Clydesdale. — These  horses  come  from  Clyde, 
Scotland.  In  many  respects  they  are  quite  similar  to 
the  Shires.  Both  have  the  feather  on  the  feet  and 
they  are  often  quite  alike  in  color.  The  breeders  of 
Clydesdale  horses  are  making  them  more  active  than 
Shires,  but  somewhat  smaller  in  size.  They  are  usually 
bay  in  color  with  a  lighter  shade  of  bay  on  the  legs. 

Percherons. — This  breed  of  horses  was  developed  in 
the  province  of  Perche,  France.  Besides  the  wild 
black  horse,  this  breed,  no  doubt,  has  the  blood  of  the 
wild  bay,  which  found  its  way  into  Arabia.  We  suppose 
the  Percheron  has  Arabian  blood,  because  horses  were 
introduced  from  that  country  into  France  during  war- 
ring conquests.  Then,  too,  the  Percheron  has  a  dispo- 
sition quite  like  the  Arabian.  The  Arabs  are  very  skillful 
horsemen.  Their  kind  treatment  of  animals  has  devel- 
oped in  their  horses  gentle  dispositions  and  wonderful 
intelligence.  Many  instances  are  recorded  of  how  these 
Arabs'  lives  have  been  saved  by  their  faithful  horses. 
A  horse  has  been  known  to  stand  all  day  in  the  hot 


164  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

desert  sun  to  protect  from  the  hot  rays  his  master  who 
has  been  overcome  and  is  lying  beneath  him.  The 
Arabian  horse  is,  also,  very  fleet  and  enduring.  The 
Percherons  have  many  of  these  characteristics,  perhaps 
to  a  less  degree. 

In  France  the  women  and  children  have  most  of  the 
care  of  the  horses.  They,  too,  are  kind  to  their  horses. 
There  they  are  broken  when  one  year  old,  but  given 
very  light  work  until  they  are  old  enough  to  market. 
Many  are  shipped  to  America  each  year.  The  heavy 
coach  work  in  France  developed  in  our  modem  Per- 
cherons strength  combined  with  a  certain  amount  of 
^eed.  They  are  now  quite  active  for  such  a  heavy 
breed.  Their  color  in  previous  years  was  more  common- 
ly gray.  Now  nearly  all  are  black  or  dark  brown. 
They  have  somewhat  smaller  legs  and  feet  than  Shires 
and  Clydesdales. 

Coach  Horses. — In  this  country  the  French  coach, 
German  coach,  and  Cleveland  bay  are,  perhaps,  most 
common.  They  are  all  medium  in  size,  weighing  from 
1,200  to  1,600  pounds. 

They  are  round  and  beautiful  in  form,  with  rather 
long,  well-arched  necks,  and  well-shaped  heads.  They  are 
quite  long  in  the  legs,  which  makes  them  desirable  for 
road  work.  They  are  also  strong  enough  to  pull  heavy 
carriages  and  coaches.  The  coach  horses  are,  per- 
haps, the  most  beautiful  in  form  of  all  horses. 

Roadster,  or  Light  Horses. — This  class  includes  the 
Kentucky  saddle-horses,  the  English  running  horse  called 
thoroughbred,  the  American  trotter,  and  many  other 
horses  light  in  weight.     This  class  of  horses  differs  from 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS  OF  TME  FARM  165 

the  draft  type  in  having  long,  thin  necks,  narrow  chests, 
narrow,  sloping  shoulders,  rather  long  backs,  and  long 
legs.  To  be  speedy  a  horse  must  have  the  legs  fairly 
close  together  and  long  enough  to  take  good  strides. 
Then  they  must  be  covered  with  hard,  strong  muscles 
and  tendons.  They  have  a  more  highly  developed  ner- 
vous system  to  put  the  muscles  in  rapid  action. 

The  English  have  developed  the  running  horse,  while 
the  Americans  have  brought  out  the  trotters.  Wild 
horses  either  walked  or  galloped.  Trotting,  then,  is  an 
artificial  gait.  By  selecting  the  fastest  trotters  for  breed- 
ing purposes  year  after  year,  the  time  required  for  going 
a  given  distance  has  been  greatly  reduced.  Our  best 
trotters  can  now  go  one  mile  in  a  few  seconds  over  two 
minutes.  The  American  trotter  is  not  a  distinct  breed 
of  horses. 


1.  Name  four  useful  domestic  animals  and  give  the  use  of 
each. 

2.  Trace  the  history  of  the  development  of  the  horse. 

3.  Name  the  five  types  of  wild  horses. 

4.  Describe  each  type  as  to  origin,  characteristics,  and  use. 

5.  What  are  the  three  general  classes  of  modern  horses? 

6.  Name  the  principal  breeds  of  draft  horses. 

7.  What  qualities  do  all  draft  breeds  possess  in  common? 

8.  State  the  origin,  characteristics,  and  use  of  the  English 
Shire;  of  the  Clydesdale;  of  the  Percherons. 

9.  Name  some  common  coach  horses,  and  gi"^"e  the  essentials 
of  a  good  coach  horse? 

10.  What  qualities  do  roadsters,  or  light  horses,  possess? 

11.  How  has  trotting  stock  been  developed? 

12.  What  classes  of  horses  will  become  less  useful  as  steam  and 
electric  cars  are  more  extensively  used  ? 


CHAPTER  XVII 

CATTLE 

The  cow  belongs  to  the  same  order  as  the  horse,  both 
having  hoofs  on  the  feet.  The  horse,  however,  belongs 
to  the  genus  Equus,  while  the  genus  or  group  to  which 
the  cow  belongs  "is  called  Bos.  This  genus  also  includes 
the  humped  cattle  of  India  and  the  European  and  Ameri- 
can buffalo,  the  latter  being  more  properly  called  Bison. 

Cattle  have  gone  through  much  the  same  process  of  de- 
velopment during  past  ages  as  have  horses.  Like  horses, 
they  walk  on  the  tips  of  their  toes.  In  front  this  is 
what  corresponds  to  that  part  of  your  finger  from  the 
end  to  the  first  joint,  while  behind  it  is  the  first  segment 
of  your  toe.  The  cow  now  has  but  two  toes  upon 
which  she  walks.  Her  remote  ancestors  had  four.  Two 
of  these  have  become  rudimentary  and  are  attached 
one  on  each  side  a  few  inches  above  the  hoof.  They  are 
now  called  dewclaws,  and  are  too  small  and  too  high  up 
to  be  of  any  use. 

The  bony  framework  of  the  cow  is  quite  like  that  of 
the  horse.  Unlike  the  horse,  she  has  no  front  teeth  on 
the  upper  jaw.  When  you  feed  the  horse  an  apple  he 
uses  his  strong  upper  lip  to  bring  it  between  his  teeth. 
Then  he  cuts  it  in  two  with  his  sharp  front  teeth.  The 
cow  runs  out  her  tongue,  draws  in  the  apple,  and  crushes 
it.  When  she  eats  grass,  she  winds  her  strong  tongue 
about  it  and  pulls  it  off. 

i66 


CATTLE  167 

Some  cows  have  horns  and  some  do  not.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  a  few  centuries  ago  all  had  horns.  When  in 
a  wild  state  they  needed  horns  to  protect  themselves 
from  wild  beasts.  The  cow  cannot  strike  with  her 
fore  feet  as  does  a  fighting  horse,  neither  can  she  kick 
with  both  hind  feet  at  once.  She  cannot  run  as  fast  as 
some  other  animals.  Her  horns  were,  therefore,  her  best 
protection. 

Wild  cattle  roamed  about  the  plains  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Africa  in  earlier  times.  There  are  said  to  have  been 
none  on  this  continent  when  America  was  discovered  by 
Columbus.  They  traveled  about  in  herds  under  the 
leadership  of  the  strongest  bull.  When  a  younger  bull 
would  become  strong  enough  to  fight  and  kill  the  former 
leader  he  would  become  the  acknowledged  king  of  the 
herd. 

Nearly  all  cattle  are  now  domesticated.  There  are 
still  a  few  herds  of  wild  cattle  preserved  in  forest  parks 
owned  by  English  noblemen.  These  are  white  in  color, 
with  black  noses  and  black  tips  on  the  horns  and  ears. 
They  are  smaller  than  our  domestic  cattle. 

The  cattle  in  our  own  herds  have  been  domesticated 
and  under  the  control  of  man  for  many  generations 
back,  yet  they  still  retain  many  of  their  wild  traits. 

If  a  strange  dog  enters  a  field  where  cattle  are  graz- 
ing, all  will  unite  in  self-protection  to  chase  him  out. 
If  a  young  calf  is  caught  it  will  bleat  long  and  loud  and 
the  herd  will  rush  from  some  distance  away  to  protect  it. 
When  a  calf  is  born  in  some  open  tract  the  mother 
secretes  it  in  the  bushes  or  some  place  out  of  sight. 
Later  she  goes  away  to  graze,  satisfied  that  nothing  will 


l68  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

discover  it.  The  calf  will  not  rise  until  the  mother 
returns  to  feed  it.  If  perchance  some  one  passes  near 
by,  it  will  stretch  out  its  neck  close  to  the  ground  and 
remain  motionless  until  after  the  seeming  danger  is 
past. 

Since  cattle  have  been  under  the  control  of  man,  there 
have  come  about  marked  changes  in  size,  form,  and 
ftmction.  The  little  fawn  Jersey  cow,  weighing  700 
pounds,  is  so  different  from  her  big  Shorthorn  cousin, 
weighing  1,600  pounds,  we  can  hardly  realize  that  mod- 
em breeds  of  cattle  come  from  the  same  source.  Our 
different  breeds  have  been  developed  in  different  coim- 
tries,  where  climate,  food  supply,  and  different  methods 
of  management  have  all  contributed  to  produce  the  va- 
riations we  now  have. 

Kinds  of  Cattle. — Our  modern  cattle  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes:  (i)  those  of  mixed  breeding  and  un- 
known ancestry;  and  (2)  those  of  pure  breeding  and 
known  ancestry.  Our  common  cattle  are  usually  a 
mixtiu"e  of  different  breeds.  It  is  not  considered  worth 
while  to  keep  a  record  of  the  ancestry  of  this  common 
kind. 

By  the  term  thoroughbred,  full-blood,  or  pure  bred, 
is  meant  those  animals  which  have  been  bred  without 
the  admixture  of  outside  blood.  Such  animals  are 
usually  registered;  that  is,  their  names  are  recorded  in 
the  association  books  together  with  the  names  of  their 
ancestors  on  both  sides  for  several  generations  back. 
Such  animals  command  higher  prices  because  their 
breeding  is  known.  The  better  the  ancestry  the  more 
valuable  is  the  animal. 


CATTLE 


169 


Fig.  55.  The  cow  on  the  left  has  the  typical  dairy  form.  She  has 
produced  1,843  lbs.  of  butter  in  five  years.  She  is  a  Jersey  cow  weigh- 
ing 750  lbs.  The  middle  cow  is  a  pure  Shorthorn  of  the  dual-purpose 
type.  She  gives  twenty  quarts  per  day  while  fresh,  and  fattens  when  not 
giving  milk.  Weight,  i.ioo  lbs.  The  cow  on  the  right  is  also  a  pure 
Shorthorn  of  the  beef  type.  She  is  always  fat,  but  does  not  give  a  large 
quantity  of  milk.     Weight,  1,600  lbs. 


Cattle  are  again  divided  into  three  classes,  according 
to  their  usefulness  to  man. 

(i)  The  beef  breeds,  or  those  which  fatten  readily 
and  produce  a  good  quality  of  beef,  but  are  not  heavy 
milkers:  as  Herefords,  Galloways,  Aberdeen- Angus,  and 
some  Shorthorns  and  Polled  Durhams. 

(2)  The  dairy  breeds,  or  those  which  are  valuable 
for  their  milk,  but  not  very  good  for  their  meat:  as  the 
Jersey,  Guernsey,  Ayrshire,  and  Holstein. 

(3)  The  dual-purpose  breeds,  or  those  which  are 
fairly  good  for  both:  as  the  Red  Polled,  Devon,  Brown 
Swiss,  and  some  Shorthorns  and  Polled  Durhams. 

Beef  Cattle. — If  we  compare  our  modern  breeds  of 
beef  cattle  with  the  specimens  which  existed  a  century 


I 


I/O  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

ago,  we  find  marked  improvement.  Systematic  effort 
to  improve  beef  cattle  began  about  two  centuries  ago. 
Probably  more  has  been  accomplished  within  the  past 
century  than  during  all  previous  time. 

Great  Britain  deserves  nearly  all  the  credit  for  this 
improvement.  From  ungainly  cattle,  which  we  would 
now  call  "scrubs,"  the  people  of  England  have  given 
us  the  beautiful  present-day  Shorthorns  and  Herefords, 
and  the  Scotchman  the  smooth  Aberdeen -Angus  and 
curly-coated  Galloway. 

Abundant  food  supply,  good  climate,  and  wise  selec- 
tion in  breeding  have  transformed  these  coarse,  slow- 
feeding,  late-maturing  animals  into  smooth,  blocky, 
easy-keeping,  and  early-maturing  animals.  It  seems 
remarkable  that  so  much  could  be  accomplished  in  but 
a  single  century. 

In  all  our  beef  breeds  to-day  we  strive  for  certain 
qualities  which  together  make  the  ideal  animal.  In 
these  qualities  we  keep  in  mind  the  demands  of  the 
buyer  and  consumer,  who  want  the  largest  possible  pro- 
portion of  the  choicest  meat  with  the  least  waste ;  and 
of  the  feeder,  who  finds  it  desirable  to  have  animals 
which  make  the  largest  possible  gains  for  food  consumed. 

The  ideal  beef  animal,  then,  is  one  which  has,  first  of 
all,  sufficient  size  to  make  him  profitable  to  the  feeder. 
He  should  also  have  a  vigorous  constitution,  as  indicated 
by  the  large,  open  nostrils  for  breathing,  a  full,  thick 
neck,  wide  and  deep  chest,  i.  e.,  wide  on  top  just  behind 
the  shoulder  blades,  and  wide  between  the  fore  legs. 
Then  he  should  have  good  digestion  and  assimilation. 
If  there  is  a  good,  active  circulation  of  blood,  food  will 


CATTLE  171 

be  thoroughly  assimilated  and  good  gains  made.  A  soft, 
pliable  skin,  soft,  glossy  hair,  and  bright  eye  indicate  a 
good  circulation  of  blood  and  good  health. 

The  older  an  animal  becomes,  the  more  food  is  re- 
quired to  produce  a  pound  of  gain.  Beef  animals 
must  be  fat  when  sold,  to  be  profitable.  Some  animals 
cannot  be  made  fat,  no  matter  how  heavily  fed,  until 
they  are  three  years  old.  Others  on  the  same  feed  can 
be  made  fat  enough  for  the  market  when  but  two  years 
old,  or  even  younger.  Such  animals  naturally  mature 
earlier.  In  form  they  are  short  in  the  legs,  broad, 
thick,  and  deep  in  body,  and  rather  fine  in  bone.  The 
short,  broad  head  is  another  indication  of  early  maturity. 
The  steer  with  a  long,  narrow  head,  long,  slim  neck, 
long  legs,  coarse  bones,  is  late  maturing  and  slow  to 
fatten. 

To  stiit  the  buyers  of  fat  cattle  the  beef  animal  should 
have  a  broad  back  and  good  width  behind.  Then  when 
he  fattens  he  will  have  a  larger  proportion  of  the  choice 
meat.  The  high-priced  roast  beef  comes  from  the  front 
part  of  the  back,  from  the  shoulders  to  the  last  rib,  and 
the  very  choice  porterhouse  and  sirloin  steak  from  the 
last  rib  to  a  point  just  behind  the  hip  bones.  The 
round  steak,  which  is  a  little  below  the  sirloin  in  price, 
comes  from  the  thigh.  The  meat  from  the  upper  half 
of  the  animal  is  worth  about  three  times  as  much  per 
pound  as  the  meat  on  the  lower  half,  so  you  will  see 
why  wide  backs  and  full  hind  quarters  are  wanted. 

The  Shorthorns. — This  breed  has  also  been  called 
Durham,  because  it  was  started  in  Durham  County, 
England,  about  two  hundred  years  ago.     They  are  now 


72  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


Fig.  s6.     Shorthorn  cows  in  pasttire. 

called  Shorthorns,  because  their  horns  are  short.  There 
are  more  animals  of  this  breed  in  America  than  of  any 
other.  They  were  first  shipped  here  from  England 
about  one  hundred  years  ago. 

The  Shorthorns  are  the  largest  of  our  beef  breeds. 
The  bulls  sometimes  weigh  as  much  as  2,800  pounds  and 
the  cows  as  high  as  2,000.  The  average  would  be  500 
or  600  pounds  less  than  these  figures. 

In  color  many  are  solid  red,  others  are  red  with  white 
markings,  some  are  roan,  i.  e.,  red  and  white  mixed  to- 
gether, and  a  few  are  white.  The  Shorthorn  is  the  only 
beef  breed  which  is  not  uniform  in  color.  They  also 
differ  widely  in  their  capacity  to  give  milk.  Some  give 
twenty  quarts  of  milk  per  day,  and  others  not  more  than 
eight  quarts.  This  is  because  some  of  the  early  Short- 
horn men  bred  for  milk  as  well  as  beef,  while  others  bred 
for  beef  and  paid  little  attention  to  the  quantity  of  milk 
given. 


CATTLE  173 

The  Shorthorns  are  quiet  in  disposition  and  make 
good  gains  when  well  fed.  They  are  not  able  to  stand 
so  much  cold,  disagreeable  weather  as  some  breeds,  be- 
cause their  skin  is  thinner  and  they  have  a  lighter  coat 
of  hair. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  find  any  breed  which  excels 
the  Shorthorns  as  a  general-purpose  breed  for  the  farmer. 

Polled  Durhams. — The  double-standard  Polled  Dur- 
ham is  a  pure  Shorthorn  without  horns.  It  happened 
that  a  Shorthorn  calf  was  born  and  never  developed 
horns.  This  was  a  freak  of  nature.  That  calf  was  the 
foimdation  of  most  modern  Polled  Durhams.  They  are 
called  double  standard  because  they  can  be  registered 
both  as  Shorthorns  and  as  Polled  Durhams.  Single- 
standard  Polled  Durhams  contain  some  blood  of  the 
common  red  muley  cow  and  are  not  pure  Shorthorns. 

The  double-standard  Polled  Durhams  are  in  much 
greater  favor.  What  was  said  concerning  Shorthorns  ap- 
plies to  this  breed  also,  except  that  this  breed  has  no  horns. 

The  Herefords. — This  breed  is  named  from  the  county 
of  Hereford  in  central  England,  where  it  was  started 
about  two  hundred  years  ago.  Some  of  the  cattle  which 
were  early  used  in  forming  this  breed  were  solid  red  in 
color  while  others  were  white.  This  would  give  red  and 
white  animals.  It  is  supposed  a  white-faced  breed 
called  the  Flemish  cattle  were  also  used,  and  this 
tended  to  fix  permanently  the  white  face  in  all  the  cattle 
of  the  breed.  Modern  Herefords  are  red,  with  white  on 
the  face,  along  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  neck,  on  the 
under  side  of  the  body,  and  on  the  feet  and  legs.  The 
red  varies  from  light  to  dark. 


174  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


Fig.  57.     Hereford  bull.     Age,  2  years  4  months.     Weight,  1,600  lbs. 

In  size  they  are  a  little  smaller  than  the  Shorthorns. 
They  are  not  considered  heavy  milkers.  Their  inclina- 
tion is  to  make  a  little  food  go  a  long  way  in  the  produc- 
tion of  beef.  Most  Herefords  are  easy  keepers  and  quiet 
in  disposition. 

They  have  thick  skin  and  hair,  and  are  therefore  able 
to  stand  more  cold  and  exposure  than  any  other  breed, 
except  the  Galloways.  Their  thick  skin  also  protects 
them  from  the  hot  sun's  rays.  They  are  hardy  and 
active  in  habits.  These  qualities  combined  make  the 
Herefords  imusually  well  adapted  to  range  conditions 
in  the  West  and  Southwest. 

Aberdeen-Angus. — This  breed  also  derives  its  name 
from  the  counties  where  started.  The  original  home  of 
the  Aberdeen-Angus  was  in  the  counties  of  Aberdeen 
and    Forfar,  northeast   Scotland.     Forfar   County  was 


CATTLE 


175 


Fig.  58.     Aberdeen- Angus  cows. 


formerly  called  Angus.  The  farmers  in  that  locality 
are  very  skillful  feeders,  and  they  have  succeeded  in 
developing  a  very  choice  beef  breed. 

One  hundred  years  ago  a  large  number  of  these  cattle 
had  horns.  Now  they  are  all  polled  or  hornless.  The 
Scotchmen  early  found  that  the  cattle  without  horns 
were  more  quiet  when  herded  together  and  less  trou- 
blesome while  being  driven  to  the  pastures.  They 
selected  for  breeding  purposes,  then,  only  those  without 
horns.  This  practice  continued,  after  several  years 
has  finally  given  us  a  breed  free  from  horns. 

The  Angus  cattle  are  uniformly  solid  black.  Occa- 
sionally one  will  have  a  white  mark  on  forehead  or  under 
side  of  body.  They  have  no  horns,  and  are  therefore 
easy  to  handle  in  the  feed  lot.  In  size  they  average 
a    little     smaller     than    the     Herefords,    are    usually 


176  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

compact  in  build,  and  naturally  mature  early,  probably 
earlier  than  any  other  breed. 

They  are  easy  to  fatten,  and  when  ready  for  market 
the  steers  make  excellent  carcasses  of  beef  because  the 
fat  is  usually  well  mixed  with  the  lean.  They  are  a  little 
more  shy  than  Shorthorns  and  Hereford?,  probably 
because  they  have  in  the  past  been  handled  less.  As 
milkers  they  are  fully  equal  to  Herefords,  but  not  so 
good  as  Shorthorns. 

Galloways. — This  is  also  a  Scotch  breed,  darning  from 
the  southern  part  of  that  country.  In  many  respects 
they  are  quite  similar  to  the  Angus.  Both  are  hornless 
and  solid  black  in  color.  The  Galloways  are  some 
smaller  and  have  long,  wavy  hair.  They  are  also  more 
fiat  on  top  of  the  head. 

The  Galloways  having  been  reared  in  the  mountain- 
ous district  in  southern  Scotland,  where  the  weather 
is  cold  and  rainy,  have  developed  a  long,  heavy  coat  of 
hair.  This  makes  them  well  suited  for  our  northern 
states.     Like  the  Herefords  they  are  also  good  grazers. 

The  Dairy  Breeds. — A  good  dairy  cow  is  one  which 
will  give  a  large  quantity  of  rich  milk  for  a  long  period 
of  time.  She  must  also  be  easy  to  milk  and  gentle  to 
handle.  If  she  has  a  tendency  to  convert  part  of  her 
food  into  flesh,  she  is  not  an  economical  milk-pro- 
ducer. 

Dairy  cows,  then,  should  be  thin  in  flesh,  even 
when  well  fed.  It  has  been  found  that  our  best 
dairy  cows  are  built  something  as  follows :  in  form  they 
are  wedge-shaped,  narrow  in  front,  widening  out  be- 
hind, and  very  deep  through   the   hind   quarter.     The 


CATTLE  177 

dairy  cow  consumes  a  great  deal  of  hay  and  grass,  and 
therefore  must  have  a  large  digestive  capacity. 

Her  head  is  long  and  narrow,  her  neck  long  and  slen- 
der, her  backbone,  ribs,  and  hip  bones  prominent,  her 
thighs  thin,  giving  plenty  of  room  for  a  large,  evenly 
quartered  udder.  The  milk  vein  running  from  the 
udder  forward  on  the  underside  of  body  should  be  large. 

Holstein. — This  is  our  oldest  breed  of  cattle.  It  is 
said  that  the  people  in  Holland  have  had  these  black 
and  white  cattle  for  nearly  two  thousand  years. 

The  little  country  of  Holland  is  low,  much  of  its 
territory  having  been  reclaimed  from  the  sea  by  the 
building  of  dikes  or  embankments  which  keep  the  tide 
back.  This  low,  rich  ground  yields  succulent  grasses 
and  other  crops  which  dairy  cows  relish,  and  from  which 
there  is  obtained  a  large  flow  of  milk. 

Then,  too,  the  native  Hollanders  are  very  pains- 
taking in  their  care  of  animals.  In  many  instances  the 
cows  are  stabled  in  a  part  of  the  house.  But  this 
is  not  so  strange  as  it  sounds,  for  they  are  very  careful 
to  keep  the  stalls  clean  and  tidy  at  all  times.  What  a 
comfort  it  would  be  to  some  of  our  American  cows, 
which  are  made  to  stand  all  day  in  unclean  and  uncom- 
fortable stalls,  if  they  could  have  such  places  as  are 
provided  in  Holland. 

The  people  of  Holland  have  bred  their  cattle  for  milk 
alone.  They  are  to-day  our  heaviest  milkers,  but  the 
milk  is  less  rich  than  Jersey  milk.  A  few  Holstein  cows 
have  given  as  high  as  forty  quarts  per  day  when  fresh. 
Thirty  quarts  per  day  is  not  unusual. 

They  are  the  largest  of  all  dairy  breeds.     Some  cows 


178  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

weigh  as  high  as  1,800  pounds,  but  probably  1,300 
pounds  would  be  an  average.  They  are  not  very  satis- 
factory for  beef  purposes,  although  most  farmers  prefer  a 
Holstein  steer  to  a  Jersey. 

Jersey,  Guernsey,  and  Alderney. — Just  across  the 
English  Channel,  south  of  England  and  west  of  France, 
there  are  three  small  islands  called  Jersey,  Guernsey, 
and  Alderney.  The  first  is  largest,  being  about  ten 
miles  long  and  five  wide.  On  these  three  little  islands 
there  have  been  developed  the  breeds  of  dairv  cattle 
named  from  the  islands. 

The  inhabitants  of  these  islands,  like  the  Hollanders, 
are  very  skillful  in  their  management  of  cattle.  An 
abimdance  of  food  is  provided.  Warm  quarters  are 
also  furnished,  because  dairy  cows  need  warm, 
well-ventilated  buildings.  They  carry  no  surplus 
fat,  and  therefore  do  not  have  the  protection  beef  cattle 
have. 

The  island  of  Jersey  has  a  population  of  about  fifty 
thousand  people,  which  means  nearly  one  thousand  to 
the  square  mile.  They  practice  very  intensive  farming, 
producing  vegetables  and  dairy  products  principally. 
They  keep  only  the  very  best  cows  and  prohibit  coming 
on  the  island  any  foreign  cattle,  except  those  which  are 
to  be  used  for  meat. 

We  have  in  America  many  of  these  cows,  whose  an- 
cestors came  from  Jersey  Island.  In  color  they  vary 
from  light  fawn  to  a  very  dark  brown.  They  are  small 
in  size,  many  not  weighing  over  700  pounds.  No  cow 
produces  richer  milk  than  the  Jersey.  They  are  valua- 
ble,  then,   for  butter.     In  disposition  they  are   quiet. 


CATTLE 


179 


which  makes  them  popular  for  the  city  man  who  keeps 
but  one  cow  and  has  but  little  feed. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  they  are  inclined  to  be  narrow- 
chested,  therefore  rather  weak  in  constitution,  and 
more  likely  to  become  diseased.  They  have  never  been 
selected  with  reference  to  constitution,  as  have  beef 
cattle,  which  accounts  for  this  weakness. 

Guernseys. — The  Guernseys  are  a  little  larger  and 
coarser  than  the  Jerseys,  but  in  other  respects  they  are 
very  similar,  as  are  also  the  Alderneys.  The  last  two 
are  not  very  numerous  in  America. 

Ayrshire. — The  Ayrshire  cattle  are  more  or  less 
spotted  in  color  and  a  little  larger  in  size  than  Jerseys. 
They  come  from  the  county  of  Ayr,  Scotland.  They  are 
not  so  good  for  milk  as  Jerseys,  but  better  for  beef, 
the  Jerseys  being  very  inferior  for  beef. 

Dual-Purpose  Breeds. — "Dual"  means  two,  so  the 
dual-purpose  cow  is  one  which  is  suitable  for  both  dairy 
and  beef  purposes.  Such  cows  are  popular  with  farm- 
ers because  they  can  be  milked  with  profit  and  their 
calves  will  bring  fair  prices  for  beef.  It  is  impossible, 
however,  to  have  cows  which  excel  in  both  respects. 
Such  cows  are  less  valuable  for  milk  than  dairy  cows, 
and  less  valuable  for  feeding  than  the  beef  breeds. 

In  form,  dual-purpose  cows  are  about  midway  between 
beef  and  dairy  type.  They  are  quite  narrow  in  front 
and  rather  spare  in  flesh. 

Red  Polled. — This  breed  was  developed  in  England. 
As  the  name  implies,  they  are  polled,  or  hornless,  and 
red  in  color.  In  size,  they  are  rather  small,  the  cows 
weighing   about    1,100   pounds.     They   feed   into   beef 


l8o  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

fairly  well  and  make  a  good  quality  of  meat.  Red 
Polls  in  our  eastern  states  are  better  milkers,  but  not 
so  good  for  beef  as  those  in  the  West. 

Shorthorns  and  Polled  Durhams. — These  breeds  were 
described  under  beef  cattle.  Some  specimens  are  good 
dual-purpose  cattle,  while  others  are  strictly  for  beef 
purposes.  The  milking  Shorthorns  are,  perhaps,  more 
in  popular  favor  than  any  other  breed.  They  have 
size,  fatten  quite  readily,  and  are  good  milkers. 

Devon. — This  breed  is  small  and  dark  red  in  color. 
They  have  large  horns.  In  many  respects  they  are 
quite  like  the  Red  Polls.  They  are  not  numerous  in 
the  West. 

Brown  Swiss. — This  breed  comes  from  Switzerland, 
where  cheesemaking  is  an  important  industry.  The 
Swiss  farmers  milk  their  cows,  work  them  in  the  fields, 
and  when  past  their  prime  for  milk  they  fatten  them 
for  beef.  They  are,  then,  what  might  be  called  triple- 
purpose.  The  Swiss  people  are  careful  not  to  overwork 
their  cows.    One  animal  usually  works  but  half  of  the  day. 


1.  Compare  the  cow  with  the  horse  as  to  origin  and  develop- 
ment. 

2.  What  wild  traits  do  domesticated  cattle  retain? 

3.  Name  two  general  classes  of  cattle  as  to  origin. 

4.  What  are  thoroughbred  cattle? 

5.  What  are  the  three  classes  of  cattle  as  to  use? 

6.  How  and  by  whom  have  good  beef  cattle  been  developed.' 

7.  Describe  an  ideal  beef  animal. 

8.  What  are  the  essentials  of  a  good  dairy  cow? 

9.  What  breeds  are  best  for  both  dairy  and  beef  purposes? 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

SWINE 

The  pig,  like  its  remote  ancestors,  and  like  its  rela- 
tive, the  hippopotamus,  is  fond  of  wallowing  in  mud 
and  water.  The  pig  has  changed  less  in  past  ages  than 
other  domestic  animals.  It  is  still  fond  of  flesh  and  has 
teeth  suited  for  tearing  flesh.  Like  the  cow  it  once  had 
four  toes,  the  two  outer  ones  being  still  present,  but  too 
high  from  the  ground  to  be  of  any  use. 

Our  modern  breeds  of  swine  are  supposed  to  come 
from  wild  hogs.  In  their  bony  framework  they  are 
quite  the  same  as  wild  hogs  now  living.  Domestication 
has  shortened  the  snout  and  legs  and  made  the  animal 
less  muscular.  The  habits  are  also  different.  The  wild 
boar  travels  about  in  the  night  in  search  of  food,  hiding 
in  thickets  during  the  day.  He  is  nearly  always 
found  alone.  If  suddenly  surprised  by  a  hunter  on 
horseback,  he  darts  out  of  his  hiding-place  and  leads  the 
horse  a  fast  race.  They  are  so  fleet  that  few  horses  or 
dogs  can  keep  pace  with  them.  They  are  usually 
hunted  by  several  men  on  horses  accompanied  by 
packs  of  dogs.  When  cornered  they  fight  hard,  using 
their  long  tusks  to  good  advantage. 

The  wild  boar  has  long  bristles,  a  thick  neck,  heavy 
shoulders,  and  small  hams.  Wild  hogs  are  usually 
dark  brown  or  sandy  in  color,  so  they  will  be  less  notice- 
able when  hiding  among  the  dead  leaves  and  on  brown 

i8i 


1 82  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

soil.  The  young  have  stripes  of  a  lighter  color  running 
lengthwise  of  the  back.  The  mothers  are  very  attentive 
to  their  young,  protecting  them  long  after  they  are 
weaned. 

Under  domestication  the  hog  has  become  quiet  in 
disposition  and  has  formed  the  habit  of  putting  on  flesh 
when  well  fed.     He  is  still  fond  of  rooting  in  the  ground. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  cattle,  probably  most  credit, 
should  be  given  the  Englishmen  for  the  improvement 
in  swine.  Yet  much  of  the  improvement  accomplished 
in  England  was  due  to  the  introduction  of  foreign  hogs, 
as  for  example,  the  old  Chinese  breeds.  An  abundance 
of  food  with  intelligent  management  has  transformed 
the  pig  from  a  rough,  ungainly  animal  to  the  round, 
fat  animal  we  have  to-day. 

Modern  hogs  are  now  divided  into  two  classes:  (i) 
those  best  adapted  to  the  production  of  fat  meat,  called 
fat  or  block  hogs;  and  (2)  those  best  adapted  to  the 
production  of  lean  meat,  called  bacon  hogs. 

Of  the  former  class  those  most  common  in  America 
are  the  Berkshires,  Poland  Chinas,  Duroc  Jerseys,  and 
Chester  Whites.  The  general  form  of  these  four  breeds 
is  quite  alike.  In  good  flesh  they  are  short  and  thick 
in  the  neck,  broad  over  the  shoulders,  back,  and  hips; 
wide  and  deep  in  the  chest,  full  in  the  hams,  and  short  in 
the  legs.     All  fatten  readily. 

Berkshires. — This  breed  was  started  in  Berkshire 
County,  England.  In  early  times  some  were  black, 
some  red,  and  some  white.  Now  all  are  black  with 
white  markings  on  the  face,  feet,  and  tip  of  tail.  They 
have   a  short,  turned-up  nose   and   erect   ears.     They 


SWINE 


83 


Fig.  59.    Young  Berkshire  sows. 


are  excellent  feeders  and  dress  well  when  killed.  Ten 
pigs  in  one  litter  is  not  unusual  for  Berkshires.  They  are 
somewhat  shy  in  disposition,  and  therefore  less  easily 
handled  than  some  other  breeds. 

Poland  China. — This  breed  was  started  in  Butler  and 
Warren  counties,  Ohio,  by  a  class  of  people  called 
Shakers.  The  native  hogs  found  in  that  section  are 
thought  to  have  come  from  Poland.  There  was  intro- 
duced later  different  strains  of  hogs  from  other  places, 
such  as  the  Byfield,  Irish  Grazier,  the  Big  China,  and 
Berkshire. 

They  are  black  in  color  with  considerably  more  white 
than  Berkshires  have.  They  have  a  rather  long,  straight 
nose  and  ears  erect  from  base  to  middle  and  drooping 
from  the  middle  to  tips. 

The  Poland  Chinas  are  quite  similar  to   Berkshires. 


1 84 


NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


Fig.  6o.     Poland  China  sows. 


They  will  fatten  at  an  earlier  age,  and  are  more  quiet  in 
disposition.  They  have  been  reared  in  the  corn-belt, 
where  not  much  except  corn  is  fed.  The  lack  of  mineral 
matter  and  albumen  in  corn  has  made  them  small  in 
bone  and  rather  inferior  breeders.  Poland  Chinas 
oftejpL  produce  only  five  to  seven  pigs  in  a  litter. 

Duroc-Jerseys. — This  is  also  an  American  breed. 
They  are  called  Duroc-Jerseys,  because  they  are  a  union 
of  two  red  breeds  of  swine — the  Durocs  from  Saratoga 
County,  New  York,  and  the  Jersey  Reds  from  New 
Jersey.  In  size  they  are  about  like  the  Berkshires  and 
Poland  Chinas.  In  color  they  vary  from  light  to  dark 
red. 

They  have  more  bone  than  the  Poland  Chinas,  and  are 
better  able  to  stand  heavy  corn  feeding.     They  are  more 


SWINE 


85 


Fig.  61.    Tamworth  brood  sows.     Bacon  type. 


productive,  sometimes  producing  as  high  as  twelve  pigs 
in  a  Htter.  The  Duroc-Jerseys  require  a  little  more  time 
for  fattening  on  account  of  being  somewhat  coarser  than 
Berkshires  and  Poland  Chinas.  They  are  well  suited  for 
pasturing  in  fields. 

Chester  Whites. — This  breed  was  started  in  Chester 
County,  Pennsylvania.  In  color  they  are  solid  white. 
They  are  larger  than  the  three  former  breeds,  but  later 
in  maturing.  During  extremely  warm  weather  they 
suffer  from  heat,  because  they  have  thin  skins.  They 
produce  larger  litters  than  do  Poland  Chinas. 

Bacon  Hogs. — This  class  is  most  common  in  England 
and  Canada.  During  recent  years  there  has  grown  a 
strong  demand  for  pork  in  the  form  of  bacon.  Bacon 
is  made  from  the  side  meat  and  should  be  lean  rather 
than  fat.     The  bacon  hogs,  as  we  now  have  them,  are    .^ 


I  86  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

long  from  the  shoulder  to  ham  and  very  deep.     The  hams 
and  shoulders  are  small.     These  hogs,  when  fed,  take 
on  less  fat  and  more  lean.     Where  the  common  lard 
hog  has  a  two-inch  layer  of  fat  on  the  outside  the  bacon . 
hog  has  only  about  one  inch. 

Tamworths. — These  hogs  came  from  Tam worth, 
England.  They  are  larger  than  the  breeds  already 
described,  excepting  the  Chester  Whites.  They  have 
long  noses,  long  ears,  are  narrow  in  the  head  and  neck, 
and  long  and  narrow  in  body,  and  long  in  the  legs. 
They  are  also  quite  heavy  in  the  bone  and  like  Chester 
Whites  and  Duroc  Jerseys  are  well  adapted  for  grazing 
in  the  field.  They  are  also  very  productive.  As 
feeders,  they  are  about  equal  to  the  other  breeds. 

Large  Yorkshires. — This  breed  also  has  the  bacon 
form.  They  differ  from  Tamworths  in  that  they  are 
solid  white  in  color,  with  turned-up  snouts  and  shorter 
legs.  They  are  less  productive  and  somewhat  more 
inclined  to  fatten  when  heavilv  fed. 


1 .  Compare  the  domesticated  hog  with  his  wild  ancestors. 

2.  What  are  the  two  general  class-es  of  modern  hogs. 

3.  What  are  the  qualities  desired  in  each  class? 

4.  Name  four  breeds  of  fat  hogs  and  give  the  most  important 
facts  concerning  each. 

5.  Name  two  breeds  of  bacon  hogs  and  describe  each. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

SHEEP 

Wild  sheep  have  inhabited  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and 
America.  In  America  they  are  called  the  Rocky 
Mountain,  or  Bighorn  sheep.  All  wild  sheep  prefer 
high  land  or  mountainous  districts.  Our  modern  breeds 
still  shun  low,  wet  ground. 

Sheep  have  been  domesticated  since  very  early  times. 
They  have  been  improved  under  man's  care  by  the 
same  methods  that  have  been  used  with  other  classes  of 
live  stock. 

All  sheep  may  be  placed  into  two  classes :  ( i )  mutton 
breeds  and  (2)  wool  breeds.  The  former  class  includes 
all  breeds  except  the  Merinos.  A  more  common  classi- 
fication is  made  with  reference  to  the  coarseness  of  their 
wool.  The  fine-wool  breeds  include  the  Spanish  Merino, 
American  Merino,  Delaine  Merino,  and  Rambouillet, 
or  French  Merino.  The  medium  wools,  or  down  breeds, 
include  the  Shropshire,  Southdown,  Hampshire,  Ox- 
ford, Cheviot,  Dorset-horned,  and  Tunis.  The  coarse 
wools  are  the  Lincoln,  Leicester,  and  Cots  wold. 

The  Spanish  Merino  is  the  foundation  of  all  the 
Merino  breeds.  These  were  originally  small  in  size,  and 
sheared  small  fleeces  of  very  fine  wool.  About  one 
hundred  years  ago  a  few  were  shipped  from  Spain  to 
America,  where  with  our  better  food  and  skill  they  have 
developed  into  a  sheep  having  greater  size  and  longer 

187 


i88 


NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 


and  heavier  wool.  These  are  called  the  American 
Merinos.  Many  of  them  are  covered  with  wrinkles, 
others  have  heavy  wrinkles  on  the  neck  with  a  smooth 
body,  which  makes  more  surface  for  wool.  When  ma- 
ture they  weigh  from  90  to  1 50  pounds.  They  sometimes 
shear  as  high  as  thirty  pounds  of  wool,  much  of  which 
weight  is  oil.  They  are  not  desirable  for  mutton  pur- 
poses. 

Delaine  Merino. — This  is  an  offshoot  of  the  American 
Merino,  being  larger  and  better  for  mutton,  having  but 
few  wrinkles  and  longer  wool,  and  well  suited  for  making 
delaine  goods,  a  fine  grade  of  cloth. 

Rambouillet. — These  sheep  were  developed  in  France 
from  the  Spanish  Merino.  They  are  the  largest  of  all 
fine-wool  breeds,  producing  a  long,  heavy  fleece  of  wool 
and  fairly  good  mutton. 

Shropshire. — Among  the  down  breeds  the  Shropshires 


Fig.  62,     Cross-brei  Shropshire  Merino  ewes, 
in  center  are  pure-bred  Shropshires. 


The  black -faced  pair 


SHEEP  189 

are  most  common  in  America.  They  were  developed  in 
Shropshire  County,  England,  where  with  rich  and 
abundant  food  they  have  become  valuable  for  mutton 
purposes. 

Mature  Shropshires  weigh  from  150  to  250  pounds. 
In  form,  like  other  mutton  breeds,  they  are  broad  and 
deep.  They  have  black  faces  and  black  feet  and  legs. 
Their  wool  is  coarser  in  texture  than  Merino  wool,  but 
quite  free  from  oil.  A  Shropshire  fleece  will  weigh  from 
seven  to  twelve  pounds. 

The  Southdowns  are  quite  similar,  except  that  they 
are  a  little  smaller  in  size  and  have  lighter  colored  faces. 
They  are  also  a  little  finer  in  bone.  The  Hampshires 
and  Oxfords  are  also  similar,  but  larger  and  coarser  than 
Shropshires.  The  Dorset-horned  have  heavy  horns 
and  a  shorter,  denser  fleece  than  the  Oxfords. 

The  Cheviots  have  a  more  open  fleece,  and,  like  the 
Dorsets,  have  white  faces  and  white  legs.  They  come 
from  the  Cheviot  Hills  in  Scotland.  All  the  others  come 
from  England. 

The  coarse-wool  breeds  are  all  larger  than  Shrop- 
shires, the  Lincoln  weighing  as  high  as  300  pounds  in 
some  instances.  The  Cots  wolds  are  about  twenty-five 
pounds  lighter  than  the  Lincolns  and  the  Leicesters 
about  fifty  pounds  lighter.  All  have  long,  coarse  wool, 
suited  for  combing  purposes.  Such  wool  is  valuable 
for  carpets. 

The  fine-wool  breeds  have  a  short  wool  fiber  which 
makes  their  wool  more  suitable  for  carding  purposes. 
Woolen  clothes  are  made  from  this  short,  fine  wool, 
which  is  not  woven  in  rows,  but  felted  together  in  a 


190  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

mass.  Wool  felts  readily  because  each  fiber  is  a  tube 
covered  with  small  scales  like  shingles  on  a  house. 
This  makes  them  adhere  together,  whereas  hair  which  is 
smooth  would  not  do  so. 

Sheep  are  sheared  early  each  summer,  the  wool  tied 
in  bundles,  and  sent  to  the  dealers.  It  is  there  washed, 
scoured,  and  sorted  into  classes  before  being  manufac- 
tured into  woolen  goods. 

Sheep  are  very  timid  animals  and  should  be  handled 
quietly.  They  are  valuable  for  keeping  fields  free  from 
weeds. 


1 .  What  are  the  two  general  classes  of  sheep  as  to  use  ? 

2.  What  are  the  three  classes  as  to  coarseness  or  fineness  of 
wool? 

3.  Name  and  describe  the  breeds  springing  from  the  Spanish 
Merino. 

4.  Of  what  special  use  is  the  wool  of  breeds  of  this  group? 

5.  Name  and  describe  the  leading  down  breeds. 

6.  Name  the  coarse-wool  breeds,  and  tell  for  what  their  wool 
is  used. 

7.  What  is  the  chief  difference  between  wool  and  hair? 

8.  What  cautions  should  be  observed  in  the  care  of  sheep? 


CHAPTER  XX 
HOW  TO  CARE  FOR  LIVE  STOCK 

From  what  has  already  been  said  concerning  the 
development  of  our  breeds  of  stock,  we  learn  that 
improvement  has  been  brought  about  by  furnishing  an 
abundance  of  good  food,  comfortable  quarters,  and  by 
selecting  for  breeding  purposes  the  best  specimens. 

If  we  fail  to  give  these  improved  animals  as  good  care 
as  they  have  had  in  the  past,  they  will  become  worse 
instead  of  better.  The  value  of  our  animals  then  will 
depend  on  the  care  we  give  them.  To  be  most  useful 
and  profitable,  all  animals  should  have  an  abundance  of 
food.  It  takes  about  one-half  of  a  full  feed  to  keep  the 
animal  machinery  going,  i.  e.,  to  keep  the  heart  beating 
and  other  organs  acting.  The  other  half  of  the  food 
given  would  go  to  produce  beef  in  the  fattening  steer, 
milk  in  the  dairy  cow,  pork  in  the  pig,  mutton  or  wool 
in  the  sheep,  and  work  in  the  horse.  The  animal  is  like 
the  steam  engine  in  that  it  requires  a  certain  amount  of 
fuel  to  get  up  steam,  the  rest  to  produce  work.  It  is 
therefore,  wasteful  to  feed  less  than  the  animal  can  use. 
This  does  not  always  mean  all  the  grain  that  can  be 
digested.  If  the  animal  is  not  being  fitted  for  market, 
perhaps  he  should  have  a  larger  proportion  of  hay, 
because  it  is  cheaper.  But  he  should  always  have  all 
that  he  wishes,  hay  and  grain  in  right  proportions,  with- 
out overfeeding  to  dull  the  appetite. 

191 


192  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

If  we  feed  the  animal  nothing  but  com,  he  gets  too 
much  starch  and  not  enough  albumen.  Corn  is  our  best 
and  cheapest  food  for  animals,  but  it  will  go  further 
if  fed  with  some  food  containing  plenty  of  albumen,  like 
alfalfa  or  clover  hay,  wheat  bran  or  shorts,  oil  meal  or 
milk.  For  cattle  or  sheep,  corn  and  alfalfa  or  clover  is 
perhaps  best,  since  these  hay  plants  contain  albumen 
and  have  sufficient  bulk  to  make  these  animals  chew 
their  cuds. 

A  cow  has  four  stomachs,  holding  in  all  about  fifty 
quarts.  In  her  first  large  stomach  she  stores  the  food 
she  gathers  during  the  day,  then  at  night  or  while  at 
rest  she  brings  it  up  again  to  chew  over  before  it  goes 
on  to  the  other  stomachs.  This  is  her  natural  way, 
and  if  she  is  deprived  of  grass  or  other  bulky  food  she 
is  uneasy,  and  perhaps  becomes  sick.  Sheep  also  have 
four  stomachs,  and  their  demands  are  like  those  of  the 
cow.  When  wild  hay  or  straw  is  given  for  bulk,  then 
something  like  bran  or  oil  meal  should  be  given  with 
corn,  because  wild  hay  is  starchy  and  lacks  albumen. 

The  pig  has  only  one  stomach,  and  that  very  small. 
He  should  have  mostly  grain,  which  might  be  largely 
corn  with  skim  milk,  shorts,  or  a  little  alfalfa  or  clover. 

The  work  horse  prefers  oats  and  corn.  Both  are  good . 
because  considerable  starch  and  oil  are  needed  to  furnish 
energy  to  drive  the  muscles.  Clover  and  alfalfa  are  apt 
to  be  too  dusty  for  horses,  causing  heaves. 

All  young  animals  need  more  albumen,  because,  while 
they  grow,  more  bone  and  lean  tissue  are  being  formed. 
Whole  milk  is  nature's  food  for  the  young  animal,  and 
is  the  most  perfect.     Milk  contains  much  albumen. 


HOW  TO  CARE  FOR  LIVE  STOCK  1 93 

Shelter. — Some  kinds  of  animals  need  more  shelter 
than  others.  The  fattening  steer  has  enough  fat  under 
its  skin  to  keep  it  warm  even  during  cold  weather. 
His  food  also  furnishes  a  great  deal  of  heat,  because  very 
starchy.  In  this  climate  a  shed  open  on  the  south  side 
is  warm  enough  for  him.  The  thin  steer  needs  a  little 
more  warmth,  and  the  dairy  cow  needs  careful  hous- 
ing. She  carries  but  little  fat  and  should  be  given  a 
warm  place  during  winter.  The  brood  sow  needs  more 
warmth  than  the  fat  hog,  for  the  same  reason.  Pigs 
have  less  hair  than  cattle  and  need  better  housing. 

Horses  also  need  warm  stables  unless  they  have  been 
out  doors  long  enough  to  develop  heavy  coats  of  hair. 
Sheep  have  a  heavy  coat  of  wool  and  need  little  housing, 
just  a  roof  to  keep  them  dry  and  a  good  windbreak. 
Young  lambs  need  a  warm  place.  All  animals  should 
have  clean  water  and  some  salt.  Regularity  of  feeding 
and  dry  beds  are  also  essential. 

Our  domestic  animals  are  God's  creatures,  just  as  we 
are.  They  are  often  larger  and  more  powerful  than 
man,  but  of  lower  intelligence.  They  are  placed  under 
our  charge  to  be  our  servants  and  we  their  protectors. 
In  the  wild  state  they  could  roam  about  at  will  and 
protect  themselves.  Under  domestication  they  are 
entirely  at  our  mercy.  We  are  expected  to  see  them 
well  cared  for  and  not  abused.  They  in  turn,  do  our 
work  and  furnish  us  with  clothing  and  food.  He  who 
starves  a  helpless  creature  is  a  criminal  of  the  worst 
kind.  The  man  who  loses  his  temper  and  beats  his 
dumb  animals  puts  himself  on  a  level  with  brutes.     The 


194  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

poor,  shivering  horse,  unblanketed  and  tied  to  a  post 
on  a  cold  winter's  day,  is  an  object  of  pity.  The  owner 
of  such  an  animal  is  a  violater  of  the  law  and  should 
be  reported  and  punished.  Our  dumb  animals  do  not 
have  our  pleasures  in  life ;  let  us  at  le^st  see  that  they  are 
always  comfortable. 


1 .  How  is  the  development  of  breeds  of  stock  brought  about? 

2.  Upon  what  does  the  value  of  animals  depend? 

3.  Explain  fully,  "It  is  wasteful  to  feed  less  than  the  animal 
can  use." 

4.  What  special  care  should  be  taken  in  feeding  stock? 

5.  What  kinds  of  food  are  best  adapted  to  the  cow?     The 
sheep  ?     The  pig  ?     The  horse  ?   . 

6.  Why  do  young  animals  need  more  albumen  in  their  food? 

7 .  What  is  the  most  nearly  perfect  food  for  the  young  animal  ? 

8.  What  special  care  should  be  taken  in  sheltering  domestic 
animals  ? 

9.  Why  should  we  treat  all  domestic  animals  with  great 
kindness  ? 

10.  Give  common  instances  of  lack  of  care  of  domestic  animals, 
and  tell  how  such  neglect  might  be  abolished. 


EXERCISES  —  PLANTS 

1.  Soak  some  beans,  corn,  and  other  seeds  for  a  day  or  twc 
Split  a  bean.     What  are  the  two  halves?     What  is  their  use? 
Find  the  second  pair  of  leaves  and  the  stem.     Make  a  drawing 
of  the  split  bean,  and  show  these  parts. 

2.  Cut  across  a  kernel  of  corn.  Find  the  outer  starchy  part 
and  the  germ.  See  if  you  can  find  a  little  roll  of  leaves  in  the 
germ.  Split  a  kernel  and  find  the  same  parts.  Make  drawings 
of  each  and  mark  the  parts.  What  difference  is  there  in  the 
place  in  which  the  food  is  stored  in  the  corn  and  in  the  bean? 
What  other  seeds  have  food  stored  in  the  germ?  Around  the 
germ  ?     What  is  the  germ  ? 

3.  Plant  seeds  of  various  kinds  in  a  box  in  the  school-room 
window — or  better,  in  a  garden  in  the  schoolyard.  Compare 
the  ways  in  which  the  different  seedlings  come  up.  What  ones 
bring  the  seed  above  ground  like  the  bean  ?  What  ones  leave  it 
below  ground  ?  What  ones  come  up  arched  ?  Why  do  you  think 
that  they  have  an  arch?  Which  grow  faster  at  first,  those  that 
come  from  large  or  from  small  seeds  ?  Do  those  that  grow  fastest 
at  first  make  the  largest  plants  ? 

4.  Plant  corn,  wheat,  and  oats  at  depths  of  i,  2,  4,  6  inches, 
and  find  how  many  days  it  takes  for  them  to  come  up  in  each 
case.  What  difference  does  the  depth  of  planting  make  in  the 
vigor  of  the  young  plants  ? 

5.  How  are  the  leaves  arranged  on  the  stalk?  Can  you  find 
any  small  rolls  of  leaves  that  look  as  if  an  ear  had  started  to 
grow?  What  is  the  position  of  the  ears  with  respect  to  the 
leaves,  and  the  groove  in  the  stalk  ?  How  many  ears  does  a  stalk 
usually  bear?  Cut  across  the  stalk.  Notice  the  threads  that 
extend  through  it.  Split  the  stalk  and  see  if  they  go  all  the  way 
through  it.  Do  they  extend  into  the  leaf  ?  What  do  you  think 
they  are  for? 

6.  Cut  across  a  small  branch,  or  get  a  stick  of  stovewood  that 
has  not  been  split.  Find  the  pith,  wood,  bark,  and  annual  rings. 
How  old  is  the  stem  ?     Do  the  rings  have  anything  to  do  with  the 

195 


196  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

grain  of  lumber  ?  Split  the  stem  and  see  how  they  appear.  Find 
a  board  in  the  floor  that  was  not  sawn  straight  with  the  log. 
Does  it  make  a  good  board  ?  What  causes  the  knots  in  boards  ? 
Is  the  inner  part  necessary  to  the  life  of  a  tree?  Have  you  ever 
seen  a  hollow  tree  that  continued  to  grow  ?  Of  what  value  to  the 
tree  is  the  inner  part?  In  what  part  of  the  stem  does  growth 
take    place  ? 

7.  Get  branches  from  several  kinds  of  trees,  maple  box- 
elder,  Cottonwood,  etc.  What  differences  in  color  and  shape 
do  you  find?  How  are  the  buds  arranged?  Find  places  where 
leaves  were  last  summer  (leaf  scars).  What  part  of  the  twig 
grew  last  year?     How  old  is  the  plant? 

8.  Get  some  flowers  of  any  kind.  If  it  is  winter,  the  "sin- 
gle ' '  house  flowers  will  do.  Find  the  essential  parts.  What  are 
their  names?  Why  are  they  called  essential  parts?  What 
other  parts  are  there  ?  Of  what  value  are  these  parts  ?  What  is 
the  nectar  (honey)  for  ?  Can  you  find  any  pollen  ?  What  differ- 
ence is  there  between  the  flowers  of  plants  that  have  pollen 
carried  by  the  wind  and  those  that  have  it  carried  by  insects  ? 

9.  Where  are  the  stamens  of  the  corn  borne?  The  pistils? 
What  is  the  yellow  powder  that  one  sees  on  the  ground  in  a 
corn-field  just  as  the  silks  begin  to  show  ?  Why  does  there  need 
to  be  so  much  of  it?  Why  is  hot,  dry  weather  particularly  bad 
for  the  corn  crop  at  this  time  ?  When  a  stalk  of  corn  grows  by 
itself,  what  kind  of  an  ear  is  formed?  Why  is  this?  If  the 
tassels  were  all  out  just  before  the  silks  appear,  what  effect  would 
it  have  on  the  crop? 

10.  Dig  around  a  hill  of  com  and  see  how  near  the  surface 
the  roots  grow.  How  far  do  they  extend  from  the  stalk  ?  How 
deep  could  the  cultivator  go  without  hurting  these  roots?  What 
additional  roots  grow  about  the  time  that  the  ears  appear? 

11.  Why  can  alfalfa  stand  dry  weather  better  than  clover? 
W^hat  are  some  of  the  best  pasture  grasses  of  your  county?  See 
if  you  can  find  what  habit  of  each  plant  makes  it  good. 

12.  How  are  the  following  propagated;  blackberries,  straw- 
berries, apples,  cherries?  What  is  budding?  Grafting?  Why 
are  they  necessary?     What  plants  are  grown  from  cuttings? 


EXERCISES  —  INSECTS 

1.  For  the  best  study  of  insects  we  shall  need  a  cage  for 
them  in  the  school-room.  Let  some  boy  who  knows  how  to  use 
tools  (as  all  boys  should)  make  a  cage.  Make  a  frame  about 
18x10x10  inches.  The  ends  and  bottom  may  be  made  of  board, 
the  sides  and  top.  of  wire  screen,  or  the  sides  may  be  of  glass. 
The  top  should  be  hmged  so  as  to  open  readily.  If  you  cannot 
provide  such  a  good  cage,  glass  jars  may  be  used,  or  you  can  fix 
up  a  box  with  mosquito  netting.  The  insects  will  not  be  very 
particular.  A  cage  with  soil  in  the  bottom  and  plants  grow- 
ing is  sometimes  called  a  terrarium.  In  this  you  can  keep 
many  kinds  of  insects.  You  must  not  forget  to  feed  them,  and 
you  will  have  to  learn  what  kind  of  food  each  one  likes. 

2.  Bring  in  enough  grasshoppers  so  that  each  pupil  will 
have  one  for  study.  Into  how  many  divisions  is  the  body 
divided?  How  many  legs  does  it  have?  What  difference  is 
there  between  the  hind  legs  and  the  other  pairs?  How  many 
wings  are  there?  Do  all  insects  have  this  number  of  wings? 
How  are  the  wings  folded?  What  difference  in  color  between 
the  outer  and  inner  pair?  To  what  part  of  the  body  are  the 
wings  and  legs  attached?  Find  the. antennae  (feelers).  Ex- 
amine the  teeth.  Do  the  jaws  move  in  the  same  way  that  yours 
do?  If  you  have  a  microscope,  see  if  you  can  find  the  divisions 
of  the  compound  eyes.     Look  between  these  for  simple  eyes. 

3.  What  are  some  of  the  most  musical  insects?  Put  some 
of  them  in  the  terrarium  and  see  if  you  can  find  out  what  kind 
of  instruments  they  have.  Do  they  have  ears  ?  See  if  you  can 
find  the  ears. 

4.  Put  some  cabbage  worms  into  the  terrarium.  Feed  them 
on  fresh  leaves  and  watch  from  day  to  day  to  see  when  they 
change  to  chrysalides  (the  pupa  stage) .  In  a  short  time  they  will 
probably  come  out  as  butterflies. 

5.  See  if  you  can  find  some  of  the  butterflies  laying  eggs  on 

197 


198  NEW  ELEMENTARY  AGRICULTURE 

the  cabbages.  Look  on  the  underside  of  the  leaf  for  the  egg. 
Notice  that  the  female  butterfly  has  two  black  spots  besides  the 
tip  in  each  wing,  while  the  male  has  but  one.  Compare  the 
caterpillar  and  butterfly  as  to  the  kind  of  food,  the  mouth,  the 
wings,  etc.  Does  it  seem  possible  that  the  butterfly  is  the  same 
individual  as  the  caterpillar,  grown  older? 

6.  Find  as  many  kinds  of  insect  homes  as  you  can.  In  each 
case  find,  if  you  can,  whether  the  old  insect  or  the  larva  made 
the  home.  Find  a  yellow-jackets'  nest'.  Yellow- jackets  are 
sometimes  called  the  first  paper  makers.  Why  ?  Do  you  know 
what  they  make  their  nest  from?  From  what  things  do  we 
make  paper?  Find  a  mud-dauber  wasp's  nest  in  which  there  are 
spiders.  How  did  the  spiders  get  there?  If  you  can  find  some 
cones  on  willow-trees,  open  one  and  see  what  caused  it.  Bring 
in  galls  from  other  plants  and  find  out  what  caused  them. 

7.  Bring  in  cocoons,  chrysalides,  caterpillars,  etc.,  whenever 
you  find  them.  Keep  them  in  the  terrarium  and  see  what 
changes  take  place. 

8.  Question  for  debate;  "Resolved,  that  insects  do  more 
good  than  they  do  harm." 

References.  Each  school  should  secure  the  bulletins  from 
their  state  experiment  station,  and  should  secure  the  Farmers' 
Bulletins  and  the  Yearbook  from  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture. These  will  be  needed  all  through  the  work  in  elementary 
agriculture,  and  will  be  of  use  as  supplementary  reading  and  in 
teaching  geography  to  advanced  pupils.  Write  to  the  Secre- 
tary of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  for  the  "List  of  Bulle- 
tins and  Circulars  Available  for  Free  Distribution."  Select 
from  these  all  that  you  can  use,  they  will  be  sent  to  you  free. 
The  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  may  be  secured 
free  by  writing  to  your  Congressman.  The  bulletins  from  the 
state  experiment  station  will  be  sent  on  application. 


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